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Maana ya maisha : Tofauti kati ya masahihisho

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[[File:Woher kommen wir Wer sind wir Wohin gehen wir.jpg|thumb|right|355px|''Tumetoka Wapi? Sisi ni Nani? Tunakwenda Wapi?''<br />Mmojawapo kati ya michoro maarufu ya msanii [[Paul Gauguin]] wa kipindi cha baada ya [[uimpreshonisti]].]]
'''Maana ya maisha''' ni mojawapo kati ya ma[[suala]] makuu kuhusu [[thamani]], [[madhumuni]] na umuhimu wa [[binadamu]] kuwepo [[duniani]] na wa [[maisha]] kwa jumla. Suala hilo linaweza kujitokeza katika ma[[swali]] mengi tofauti yanayohusiana, kama vile ''Mbona tumekuwepo?'', ''Maisha yanahusu nini?'' na ''Ni nini maana ya haya yote?''
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*Hali ya maisha ni nini? Ukweli ni nini? <ref name="Davies" /><ref name="Christiansen & Baum & Bass-Haugen">{{cite book |author=Charles Christiansen; Carolyn Manville Baum; Julie Bass-Haugen |title=Occupational Therapy: Performance, Participation, and Well-Being |publisher=SLACK Incorporated |year=2005 |isbn=1556425309}}</ref><ref name="Walker">{{cite book |author=[[Evan Harris Walker]] |title=The Physics of Consciousness: The Quantum Mind and the Meaning of Life |publisher=Perseus Books |year=2000 |isbn=0738204366}}</ref>
 
* Madhumuni ya maisha ya mtu ni nini? <ref name="WITMOL" /><ref name="Baggini" /><ref name="Christiansen & Baum & Bass-Haugen" /><ref name="warren">{{cite book |author=[[Rick Warren]] |title=[[The Purpose Driven Life|The Purpose Driven Life: What on Earth Am I Here For?]] |publisher=Zondervan |year=2002 |isbn=0310255252}}</ref><ref name="Krishnamurti">{{cite book |author=[[Jiddu Krishnamurti]] |title=What Are You Doing With Your Life? |publisher=Krishnamurti Foundation of America |year=2001 |isbn=188800424X}}</ref>
 
*Maana ya maisha ni nini? <ref name="Krishnamurti" />
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Kwamba [[sayansi]] inaweza kutusaidia kuelewa zaidi masuala ya msingi (kama vile maana ya maisha) inazua mabishano mengi katika jamii za sayansi na [[falsafa ya sayansi]].
 
Hata hivyo, sayansi inaweza kutupa muktadha fulani na huiweka baadhi yahuyaweka mipaka yakadhaa mazungumzo kuhusu mada kama hizo.
 
===Umuhimu wa kisaikolojia na thamani katika maisha===
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Aina moja ya mfumo wa thamani iliyopendekezwa na [[wataalamu]] wa [[elimunafsia ya jamii]], iitwayo kwa upana "Nadharia ya Kupambana na Mambo ya Kutisha", inasema kwamba maana yote ya binadamu inatokana na [[hofu]] ya msingi ya [[kifo]], ambapo maadili yanachaguliwa yanapotusaidia kuepukana na kumbukumbu ya kifo.
 
[[Sayansi]] ya [[niurolojianyurolojia]] imetunga [[nadharia]] ya [[malipo]], [[raha]] na [[msukumo]] katika masuala ya ki[[mwili]] kama shughuli za kupitisha [[ujumbe za kiniurokinyuro]]. Ikiwa mtu anaamini kwamba maana ya maisha ni kufanya raha ziwe nyingi iwezekanavyo, basi nadharia zinatoa [[utabiri]] unaozidi kuongezeka, kuhusu jinsi ya kufanya ili kufanikisha hilo.
 
[[Somo la kijamii]] linapima thamani katika ngazi ya kijamii kwa kubuni nadharia kama vile nadharia ya thamani kanuni, [[anomi]], n.k.
 
===Asili na hali ya maisha ya kibiolojia===
Nadharia ya [[mabadilikomageuko ya viumbespishi]] haijaribu kuelezea asili ya [[uhai]], bali [[mchakato]] ambao viumbe tofauti vimepitia katika kipindi chote cha [[historia]] ya [[dunia]] kupitia [[mabadiliko ya ghafla ya kijenitikiakijenetikia]] na [[uteuzi wa kiasili]]<ref>[[Charles Darwin]] (1859). ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.</ref> Mwishoni mwa [[karne ya 20]], kwa kuzingatia ufahamu wa mabadiliko ya viumbe[[viumbehai]] unaotegemea [[jeni]] hasa, [[wanabiolojia]] [[George C. Williams]], [[Richard Dawkins]], [[David Haig]] na wengineo, walihitimisha kwamba ikiwa kuna kazi msingi ya maisha, ni kujinakilisha kwa [[DNA]] na kuendelea kuwa hai kwa jeni za mtu.<ref name="Dawkins selfish gene">{{cite book |author=[[Richard Dawkins]] |title=[[The Selfish Gene]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1976 |isbn=019857519X}}</ref><ref name="Dawkins river">{{cite book |author=[[Richard Dawkins]] |title=[[River out of Eden]] |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |year=1995 |isbn=0-465-06990-8}}</ref>▼
Kufanya kazi kwa [[abayojenesisi]] hakueleweki kwa [[ufasaha]]: nadharia mashuhuri ni pamoja na nadharia ya dunia ya [[RNA]] (vitoaji aina sawa katika makao ya RNA) na nadharia ya dunia ya [[chuma]]-[[sulfuri]] ([[umetaboli]] bila [[jenetikia]]).
 
Ingawa [[wanasayansi]] wameyachunguza maisha yalivyo [[duniani]], kuyafafanua bayana bado ni changamoto.<ref>[http://www.astrobio.net/news/article226 Astrobiology Magazine: Defining Life]</ref><ref>[http://www.nbi.dk/~emmeche/cePubl/97e.defLife.v3f.html Defining Life, Explaining Emergence<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Kimwili, mtu anaweza kusema maisha "hula [[entirofi]] hasi" <ref>{{cite book | last = Schrödinger | first = Erwin | title = What is Life? | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1944 | isbn = 0-521-42708-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Margulis | first = Lynn | coauthors = Sagan, Dorion | title = What is Life? | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1995 | isbn = 0-520-22021-8}}</ref> ambayo walio hai wanapunguza entirofi yao ya ndani kwa [[gharama]] ya aina fulani ya [[nishati]] inayochukuliwa ndani kutoka [[mazingira]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Lovelock | first = James | title = Gaia – a New Look at Life on Earth | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-19-286218-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Avery | first = John | title = Information Theory and Evolution | publisher = World Scientific | year = 2003 | isbn = 9812383999}}</ref>▼
▲Nadharia ya [[mabadiliko ya viumbe]] haijaribu kuelezea asili ya [[uhai]], bali [[mchakato]] ambao viumbe tofauti vimepitia katika kipindi chote cha [[historia]] kupitia [[mabadiliko ya ghafla ya kijenitikia]] na [[uteuzi wa kiasili]]<ref>[[Charles Darwin]] (1859). ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.</ref> Mwishoni mwa [[karne ya 20]], kwa kuzingatia ufahamu wa mabadiliko ya viumbe unaotegemea [[jeni]] hasa, [[wanabiolojia]] [[George C. Williams]], [[Richard Dawkins]], [[David Haig]] na wengineo, walihitimisha kwamba ikiwa kuna kazi msingi ya maisha, ni kujinakilisha kwa [[DNA]] na kuendelea kuwa hai kwa jeni za mtu.<ref name="Dawkins selfish gene">{{cite book |author=[[Richard Dawkins]] |title=[[The Selfish Gene]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1976 |isbn=019857519X}}</ref><ref name="Dawkins river">{{cite book |author=[[Richard Dawkins]] |title=[[River out of Eden]] |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |year=1995 |isbn=0-465-06990-8}}</ref>
 
[[Wanabiolojia]] kwa jumla wanakubaliana kwamba viumbe mbalimbali ni mifumo inayojipanga inayosimamia mazingira ya ndani ili kudumisha hali hii ya mpango, shughuli za kimetaboli hutumika kutoa nishati, na [[uzazi]] unaruhusu uhai kuendelea kwa vizazi vingi. Kwa kawaida, [[umbile]] huwa sikivu kwa [[uchochezi]] na habari za kijenetikia, hivyo huelekea kubadilika kutoka [[kizazi]] hadi kizazi ili kuruhusu marekebisho kupitia mabadiliko ya mwili. Sifa hizo huongeza nafasi ya kuishi ya [[kiumbe]] binafsi na wazao wake kwa mtiririko huo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.una.edu/pdavis/BI%20101/Overview%20Fall%202004.htm |title=How to Define Life |accessdate=2008-10-17 |last=Davison |first=Paul G. |publisher=The University of North Alabama }}</ref><ref>Witzany, G. (2007). The Logos of the Bios 2. Bio-Communication. Helsinki, Umweb.</ref>▼
▲Ingawa [[wanasayansi]] wameyachunguza maisha yalivyo [[duniani]], kuyafafanua bayana bado ni changamoto.<ref>[http://www.astrobio.net/news/article226 Astrobiology Magazine: Defining Life]</ref><ref>[http://www.nbi.dk/~emmeche/cePubl/97e.defLife.v3f.html Defining Life, Explaining Emergence<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Kimwili, mtu anaweza kusema maisha "hula [[entirofi]] hasi" <ref>{{cite book | last = Schrödinger | first = Erwin | title = What is Life? | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1944 | isbn = 0-521-42708-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Margulis | first = Lynn | coauthors = Sagan, Dorion | title = What is Life? | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1995 | isbn = 0-520-22021-8}}</ref> ambayo walio hai wanapunguza entirofi yao ya ndani kwa [[gharama]] ya aina fulani ya [[nishati]] inayochukuliwa ndani kutoka [[mazingira]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Lovelock | first = James | title = Gaia – a New Look at Life on Earth | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-19-286218-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Avery | first = John | title = Information Theory and Evolution | publisher = World Scientific | year = 2003 | isbn = 9812383999}}</ref>
 
Viwakala visivyokuwa vya [[seli]] vinavyozaana, hasa [[virusi]], kwa jumla havitazamwi kama viumbeviumbehai kwa sababu haviwezi kuzaana kwa "kujitegemea" au kuendesha shughuli za kimetaboliki. [[Pambano]] hilo ni tatizo, ingawa baadhi ya [[vimelea]] na visimbayonti vya ndani ya mwili pia vinaweza kuishi kwa kujitegemea.▼
▲[[Wanabiolojia]] kwa jumla wanakubaliana kwamba viumbe mbalimbali ni mifumo inayojipanga inayosimamia mazingira ya ndani ili kudumisha hali hii ya mpango, shughuli za kimetaboli hutumika kutoa nishati, na [[uzazi]] unaruhusu uhai kuendelea kwa vizazi vingi. Kwa kawaida, [[umbile]] huwa sikivu kwa [[uchochezi]] na habari za kijenetikia, hivyo huelekea kubadilika kutoka [[kizazi]] hadi kizazi ili kuruhusu marekebisho kupitia mabadiliko ya mwili. Sifa hizo huongeza nafasi ya kuishi ya [[kiumbe]] binafsi na wazao wake kwa mtiririko huo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.una.edu/pdavis/BI%20101/Overview%20Fall%202004.htm |title=How to Define Life |accessdate=2008-10-17 |last=Davison |first=Paul G. |publisher=The University of North Alabama }}</ref><ref>Witzany, G. (2007). The Logos of the Bios 2. Bio-Communication. Helsinki, Umweb.</ref>
 
▲Viwakala visivyokuwa vya [[seli]] vinavyozaana, hasa [[virusi]], kwa jumla havitazamwi kama viumbe kwa sababu haviwezi kuzaana kwa "kujitegemea" au kuendesha shughuli za kimetaboliki. [[Pambano]] hilo ni tatizo, ingawa baadhi ya [[vimelea]] na visimbayonti vya ndani ya mwili pia vinaweza kuishi kwa kujitegemea.
 
[[Astrobiolojia]] inajihusisha na uwezekano wa kuwa na aina tofauti ya [[viumbe hai]] katika [[ulimwengu]] mwingine, kama vile miundo ya kujinakilisha kutoka vifaa vingine visivyo DNA.
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===Asili na hatima ya ulimwengu===
[[File:CMB Timeline300 no WMAP.jpg|right|268px|thumb|[[Upanuzi wa kimetriki wa nafasi]]. Enzi ya kupanda ni kupanuka kwa kivuto cha kimetriki kilichoko upande wa kushoto.]]
Ingawa dhana ya [[Mlipuko mkuu]] ilipotolewa mara ya kwanza ilipambana na [[shaka]] kwa wingi, pia kutokana na uhusiano na imani ya dini ya [[uumbaji]], baadaye imekuja kuungwa mkono na [[uchunguzi]] kadhaa wa kujitegemea.<ref>{{cite book | author = Helge Kragh | title = Cosmology and Controversy | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1996 | isbn=069100546X}}</ref> Hata hivyo, [[fizikia]] ya sasa inaweza kuelezea tu ulimwengu ulivyokuwa mapema, [[sekunde]] 10 baada ya kutokea. [[Wanafizikia]] wengi wamedadisi nini inaweza kuwa imetangulia, na jinsi ulimwengu ulivyoanza.<ref name="Prantzos & Lyle">{{cite book |author=Nikos Prantzos; Stephen Lyle |title=Our Cosmic Future: Humanity's Fate in the Universe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=052177098X}}</ref> Baadhi ya wanafizikia hudhani kuwa Mlipuko mkuu ulitokea kikwa [[ajalibahati]], na kanuni ya kianthropiki inapozingatiwatu, marapamoja nyingi hutafsiriwa kuashiriana uwepo wa ulimwengu maridhawa.<ref name="Edwards">{{cite book |author=Rem B. Edwards |title=What Caused the Big Bang? |publisher=Rodopi |year=2001 |isbn=9042014075}}</ref>
 
Hata hivyo, haijalishi jinsi ulimwengu ulivyokuja kuwepo, hatima ya binadamu katika ulimwengu huu ni [[maangamizi]] kwani - hata kama ubinadamu utaishi muda huo wotemrefu - maishauhai yawa kibiolojia hatimaye yatashindwa kujiendeleza.<ref name="Prantzos & Lyle" />
 
===Maswali ya sayansi kuhusu akili===
Hali ya kweli na asili ya [[fahamu]] na [[akili]] yenyewe pia vinajadiliwa sana katika sayansi. Suala la [[hiari]] pia linaonekana kuwa na umuhimu wa msingi. Masuala hayo hupatikana zaidi katika nyanja za [[sayansi koginitivu]], [[niurolojianyurolojia]] na [[falsafa ya akili]], ingawa baadhi ya wanabiolojia wa [[maendeleo ya uhai|mabadiliko ya viumbe]] na [[wanafizikia wa kinadharia]] pia wameliashiria sana suala hilo.<ref name="Whitehouse">{{cite book |author=Harvey Whitehouse |title=The Debated Mind: Evolutionary Psychology Versus Ethnography |publisher=Berg Publishers |year=2001 |isbn=1859734278}}</ref><ref name="Gray">{{cite book |author=[[Jeffrey Alan Gray]] |title=Consciousness: Creeping Up on the Hard Problem |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0198520905}}</ref><ref name="Barrow, Davies, Harper">{{cite book |author=[[John D. Barrow]]; [[Paul Davies|Paul C. W. Davies]]; Charles L. Harper |title=Science and Ultimate Reality: Quantum Theory, Cosmology and Complexity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=052183113X}}</ref><ref name="Barrow, Davies, Harper" /> mara nyingi zikijumuisha idadi kubwa ya mitazamo ya ziada.<ref name="Millay, Heinze">{{cite book |author=Jean Millay; Ruth-Inge Heinze |title=Multidimensional Mind: Remote Viewing in Hyperspace |publisher=North Atlantic Books |year=1999 |isbn=1556433069}}</ref>
 
[[File:Ascent of the Blessed.jpg|125px|right|thumb|''Kuinuka kwa Watakatifu'' ni [[picha]] iliyochorwa na [[msanii]] [[Hieronymus Bosch]]. Inaonyesha sehemu inayofanana na [[pango]] lenye [[mwanga]] na watu wa kiroho, mara nyingi hutajwa katika ripoti za waliokikaribia kifo.]]
Mbinu nyingine, kwa vile Mfano wa Rasimu Nyingi, hudai kwamba fahamu inaweza kuelezwa kikamilifu na niurolojianyurolojia, kupitia utendaji kazi wa [[ubongo]] na [[niuroninyuroni]] zake, hivyo kushikilia ubiolojia wa kihalisia.<ref name="Gray" /><ref name="Churchland">{{cite book |author=[[Paul Churchland|Paul M. Churchland]] |title=A Neurocomputational Perspective: The Nature of Mind and the Structure of Science |publisher= MIT Press |year=1989 |isbn=0262531062}}</ref><ref name="Dennett">{{cite book |author=[[Daniel Dennett|Daniel Clement Dennett]] |title=[[Consciousness Explained]] |publisher=Little, Brown and Co. |year=1991 |isbn=0316180661}}</ref>
 
Kwa upande mwingine, wanasayansi kama [[Andrei Linde]] wanadhani kwamba fahamu, kama nafasi-wakati, huenda ikiwa na ngazi zake za ndani za uhuru, na kwamba maoni ya mtu binafsi yanaweza kuwa halisi kama (au hata kuliko) vifaa tunavyoweza kuvigusa na kuviona.<ref name="Barrow, Davies, Harper">{{cite book |author=[[John D. Barrow]]; [[Paul Davies|Paul C. W. Davies]]; Charles L. Harper |title=Science and Ultimate Reality: Quantum Theory, Cosmology and Complexity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=052183113X}}</ref><ref name="Barrow, Davies, Harper" /> mara nyingi zikijumuisha idadi kubwa ya mitazamo ya ziada.<ref name="Millay, Heinze">{{cite book |author=Jean Millay; Ruth-Inge Heinze |title=Multidimensional Mind: Remote Viewing in Hyperspace |publisher=North Atlantic Books |year=1999 |isbn=1556433069}}</ref>
 
Nadharia za [[sumakuumeme]] za fahamu zinatatua tatizo lenye vipengele vingi la fahamu kwa kusemazinasema eneo la sumakuumeme linalotokana na [[ubongo]] ndilo hasa linalobeba [[fahamu zoefu]]. Hata hivyo kuna kutokubaliana kuhusu kutekelezwa kwa nadharia kama hiyo inayohusu utendaji kazi kwingine kwa akili.<ref>J. McFadden (2002) "[http://www.mindcontrolforums.com/news/electromagnetic-field-theory-of-consciousness.htm Synchronous Firing and Its Influence on the Brain's Electromagnetic Field: Evidence for an Electromagnetic Field Theory of Consciousness]". ''Journal of Consciousness Studies'' '''9''' (4) pp. 23-50.</ref><ref name="Buccheri & Di Gesù & Saniga">{{cite book |author=R. Buccheri; V. Di Gesù; Metod Saniga |title=Studies on the Structure of Time: From Physics to Psycho(patho)logy |publisher=Springer |year=2000 |isbn=030646439X}}</ref>
 
Nadharia za akili za ki[[kwontamu]] hutumia [[nadharia ya kwontamu]] kuelezea baadhi ya sifa za akili. <ref name="Bohm & Hiley">{{cite book |author=[[David Bohm]]; Basil J. Hiley |title=The Undivided Universe: An Ontological Interpretation of Quantum Theory |publisher=Routledge |year=1993 |isbn=0415065887}}</ref><ref name="Bruce">{{cite book |author=Alexandra Bruce |title=Beyond the Bleep: The Definitive Unauthorized Guide to What the Bleep Do We Know!? |publisher=The Disinformation Company |year=2005 |isbn=1932857222}}</ref><ref name="Bohm & Hiley" /><ref name="Libet, Freeman, Sutherland">{{cite book |author=Benjamin Libet; Anthony Freeman; Keith Sutherland |title=The Volitional Brain: Towards a Neuroscience of Free Will |publisher=Imprint Academic |year=1999 |isbn=0907845118}}</ref>
 
Ikitegemea hoja ya maelezo ya akili yasiyoweza kugusika, baadhi ya watu wamependekeza uwepo wa [[fahamu ya kikozmikikikosmiki]], wakidai kwamba fahamu kwa kweli ndiyo "msingi wa yote kuwepo".<ref name="Walker"/><ref name="Bruce" /><ref name="Ho">{{cite book |author=[[Mae-Wan Ho]] |title=The Rainbow and the Worm: The Physics of Organisms |publisher=World Scientific |year=1998 |pages=218–231 |isbn=9810234279}}</ref> Wanaounga mkono mtazamo huo wanaelezea matukio yasiyo vyaya kawaida, hasa uwezo wa kuhisi usio wa kawaida na uwezo wa kuyasoma mawazo, kama [[ushahidi]] wa uwepo wa fahamu ya juu isiyoeleweka. Katika ma[[tumaini]] yaIli kuthibitisha uwepo wa mambo hayo yasiyo ya kawaida, wana[[elimunafsia]] wa mambo yasiyo ya kawaida wamefanya ma[[jaribio]] mbalimbali. Uchambuzi unaoangalia mambo yote yaliyopo unaonyesha kuwa [[asilimia]] ya wenye nguvu zisizo za kawaida (ingawa ndogo sana) imebaki thabiti.<ref name=Radnin97>{{cite book |last=Radin |first=Dean |authorlink = |title=The Conscious Universe: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |year=1997 |isbn=0062515020}}</ref><ref name=Dunne85>{{cite journal |last=Dunne |first=Brenda J. |authorlink= |coauthors=Jahn, Robert G. |title=On the quantum mechanics of consciousness, with application to anomalous phenomena |journal=Foundations of Physics |volume=16 |issue=8 |pages=721–772 |year=1985 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/vtrr87tg356154r7/ |doi=10.1007/BF00735378|accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref> Ingawa baadhi ya [[wachambuzi wakosoaji]] wanahisi somo la [[elimunafsia isiyo ya kawaida]] kuwa sayansi, hawaridhishwi na matokeo ya majaribio yake.<ref name=Alcock03>{{cite journal |last=Alcock |first=James E. |authorlink= |coauthors=Jahn, Robert G. |title=Give the Null Hypothesis a Chance |journal=Journal of Consciousness Studies |volume=10 |issue=6-7 |pages=29–50 |year=2003 |url=http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Alcock-editorial.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref><ref name=Hyman>{{cite journal |last=Hyman |first=Ray |title=Evaluation of the program on anomalous mental phenomena |journal=The Journal of Parapsychology |volume=59 |issue=1 |year=1995 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n4_v59/ai_18445600 |accessdate=2007-07-30|archiveurl=http://archive.is/rv0W|archivedate=2012-07-09}}</ref>
Wanaochunguza mambo haya upya, wanabaki na [[wasiwasi]] kwamba matokeo yanayoonekana kuwa na mafanikio huenda yakawa yanatokana na [[utaratibu]] mbaya, na watafiti wasiokuwa na mafunzo ya kutosha, au mbinu hafifu.<ref name=Akers>{{cite paper |author=Akers, C. |title=Methodological Criticisms of Parapsychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 4 |publisher=PesquisaPSI |year=1986 |url=http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances4/7_Methodological_Criticisms.html
|accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite paper |author=Child, I.L.
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==Mitazamo ya kifalsafa==
Mitazamo ya kifalsafafalsafa kuhusu maana ya maisha ni [[itikadi]] ambazo huelezea maisha kupitia suala la maadili au dhana zinazofafanuliwa na binadamu.
 
===Falsafa za Kale za KigirikiUgiriki===
[[File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|160px|right|Plato na Aristotle katika ''[[Shule ya Athene]]'', [[mchoro wa ukutani]] wa [[msanii]] [[Raffaello]].]]
 
====Uplato====
[[Plato]] alikuwa mmoja wa [[wanafalsafa]] wa mwanzo, na mwenye ushawishi mwingi hadi leo, hasa kwa uhalisia kuhusu uwepo wa malimwengu. Katika [[Nadharia ya Maumbo]], malimwengu hayapo kimwili, lakini yapo katika maumbo ya ki[[mbingu]]. Katika ''[[Jamhuri ya Plato|Jamhuri]]'' mazungumzo ya [[mhusika]] wa [[mwalimu]] wake [[Sokrates]] yanaelezea Umbo la Zuri, jambo la kimaadili, hali kamili ya [[uzuri]], hivyo basi kipimo cha ujumla cha [[haki]]. Katika falsafa ya Plato, maana ya maisha ni kufikia umbo la juu zaidi la [[elimu]], ambalo ni Umbo la Zuri, ambapo mambo yote mema na ya haki yanatoa umuhimu na thamani. Binadamu wamefungwa nawana [[wajibu]] wa kuyatekeleza mazuri, lakini hakuna yeyote anayeweza kufanikiwa katika [[harakati]] hiyo bila fikira za kifalsafa, ambazo zinaruhusu elimu ya kweli.
 
====Uaristoteli====
[[Aristotle]], [[mwanafunzi]] wa [[Plato]], alikuwa mwanafalsafa mwingine wa mapema, mwenye ushawishi mkubwa, ambaye alisema kuwa maarifa ya maadili si ya ''hakika'' kama [[metafizikia]] na [[somo la maarifa]], lakini ni ''maarifa ya kiujumlakijumla''. Kwa sababu si [[fani]] ya kinadharia, inambidi mtu asome na afanye mazoezi ili awe 'mzuri', kwa hiyo mtu angekuwa [[mwema]], hangeweza kusoma tu [[fadhila]] ni nini, ingembidi awe na fadhila, kupitia juhudi za kiadili. Kufanya hili, Aristotle alifafanua kitendo kilicho cha fadhila: "Kila tajriba na kila swali, na vilevile kila tendo na chaguo la tendo, linadhaniwa kuwa na uzuri fulani kama lengo lake. Hii ndiyoNdiyo sababu ya kwamba lile zuri limefafanuliwa ifaavyo kama lengo la bidii yote [...]<br>Kila kitu hufanywa na lengo, na lengo hilo ni "zuri". ([[Maadili ya Kinikomakea]] 1.1).
 
Hata hivyo, ikiwa kitendo A kinafanyika ili kufikia lengo B, kisha lengo B pia litakuwa na lengo (lengo C), na lengo C pia litakuwa na lengo, hivyo muundo huo utaendelea mpaka kitu kiusimamishe. [[Suluhisho]] la Aristotle ni ''[[Wema mkuu]]'', ambao ni wa kuwaniwa kwa ajili yake pekee, ni lengo lake lenyewe. Wema mkuu hauwaniwi kwa ajili ya kufikia mema mengine, na mema yote yanawaniwa kwa ajili yake. Hili linahusisha kufikia "[[eudemonia]]", ambayo kwa kawaida hutafsiriwa kama "furaha", "ustawi", "kutokosa chochote muhimu", na "ubora".
 
====Falsafa ya Shaka====
Katika [[Ugiriki ya Kale]] [[wanafalsafa wa shaka]] walisema kuwa lengo la maisha ni kuishi maisha yakwa fadhila yanayowiana na [[viumbe]] wengine. Furaha inatokana na kujitegemea na kuusimamia mtazamo wa kiakili; mateso yanatokana na maamuzi ya [[uongo]] kuhusu thamani, ambayo husababisha hisia mbaya na aidha tabia ya [[uhasama]].
 
Maisha ya shaka yanakataa tamaa za kawaida za [[mali]], [[nguvu]], [[afya]], na [[umaarufu]], kwa kuwa huru kutoka vitu vinavyopatikana katika kuyatafuta ya kawaida.<ref>Kidd, I., "''Cynicism''," in ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy.'' (ed. [[J. O. Urmson]] and [[Jonathan Rée]]), Routledge. (2005)</ref><ref>Long, A. A., "''The Socratic Tradition: Diogenes, Crates, and Hellenistic Ethics,''" in ''The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy.'' (ed. Branham and Goulet-Cazé), University of California Press, (1996).</ref> Kama viumbe wenye [[uwezo wa kufikiria]], watu wanaweza kufanikisha furaha kupitia mafunzo kabambe, kwa kuishi katika njia iliyo ya kiasili kwa [[binadamu]]kwao. [[Dunia]] ni ya kila mtu kwa kiwango sawa, hivyo [[mateso]] yanasababishwa na uamuzi wa uongo kuhusu kile ambacho ni cha thamani na kile ambacho hakina maana kulingana na [[tamaduni]] na itikadi za [[jamii]].
 
====UsairiniUkurene====
Falsafa ya [[usairiniUkurene]], iliyoanzishwa na [[Aristipo wa KireneKurene]], ilikuwa [[shule]] ya zamani ya [[sokrates|Kisokrate]] iliyotiliailiyotia maanani upande mmoja tu wa mafundisho ya Sokrates - kwamba furaha ni tokeo moja la mwisho la hatua za kimaadili na kwamba radhi ni zuri kuu; hivyo basi mtazamo wa dunia wa kuipenda raha pekee ambapo kutimiza tamaa za mwili ni za faida kuliko radhi ya akili. WasairiniWakurene walipendelea kutimiza tamaa haraka kuliko faida inayopatikana baada ya kusubiri kipindi kirefu; kunyimwa ni huzuni mbaya.<ref>"Cyrenaics." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The University of Tennessee At Martin. 4 Nov. 2007 <http://www.iep.utm.edu/>.</ref><ref>"The Cyrenaics and the Origin of Hedonism." Hedonism.org. BLTC. 4 Nov. 2007 <http://www.hedonism.org>.</ref>
 
====Uepikuro====
[[File:Epicurus Louvre.jpg|left|thumb|132px|Mchongo wa [[Epikuro]] akimuegemea [[mwanafunzi]] wake Metrodorus katika [[makavazi]] ya [[Louvre]].]]
Kwa [[Epikuro]], jambo zuri kuliko yote ni kutafuta raha za wastani, kupata [[utulivu]] na kuwa uhuruhuru kutoka hofu (“ataraxia”) kupitia maarifa, [[urafiki]] na [[wema]], kuishi kwa kujichunga; maumivu ya kimwili (“aponia”) hayapo kupitia maarifa ya mtu kuhusu hali ya dunia na mipaka ya matamanio ya mtu. Vikiwa pamoja, uhuru kutoka maumivu na uhuru kutoka hofu ndiyo furaha kuu. Kukusifu kwake kufurahia [[anasa]] ambazo hazijapita kiasi kunakaribia dhana ya "kujiepusha" na raha zote kama vile [[ngono]] na anasa:
 
<blockquote>Tunaposema... kuwa radhi ndio mwisho na lengo, hatumaanishi raha za upotevu au raha za kimwili, jinsi tunavyoeleweka na wachache kwa ujinga, ubaguzi au udanganyifu wa makusudi. Tukisema radhi tunamaanisha kutokuwepo kwa maumivu mwilini na taabu katika nafsi. Si kwa mfululizo wa [[ulevi]] na kuponda raha, si kwa tamaa ya ngono, wala kufurahia utamu wa [[samaki]], na vyakula vingine vitamu kutoka [[meza]] iliyojaa vinono, ambavyo huzalisha maisha mazuri; ni fikira za kimakini, kutafuta nje ya misingi ya kila uchaguzi na kuepuka, na kuikataa mitazamo ambayo hufanya shida kubwa kuichukua nafsi.<ref>Epicurus, "Letter to Menoeceus", contained in Diogenes Laertius, ''Lives of Eminent Philosophers'', Book X</ref></blockquote>
Line 118 ⟶ 113:
Maana ya Kiepikuro ya maisha inakanusha kutokufa na dhana ya maisha mengine mbali na haya ya duniani; kuna nafsi, lakini inaweza kufa kama mwili. Hakuna maisha baada ya kifo, ingawa mtu hatakiwi kuogopa kifo, kwa sababu "Kifo si chochote kwetu, kwani yale ambao hunywea, ni bila hisia, na kile ambacho hakina hisia si chochote kwetu."<ref name="Russel">[[Bertrand Russell]] (1946). ''[[History of Western Philosophy (Russell)|A History of Western Philosophy]]'', New York: Simon and Schuster; London: George Allen and Unwin</ref>
 
====Falsafa ya Uvumilivuuvumilivu====
[[Falsafa ya Uvumilivuuvumilivu]] hufunza kwamba kuishi kulingana na fikira njema ni kuwa katika uwiano na mpango wa ulimwengu wa Kimungu, unaotokana na mtu kufahamu ''[[logos]]'', ''fikira'' ya ulimwengu wote, thamani muhimu inayopatikana kwa wote. Maana ya maisha ni ''uhuru kutoka mateso'' kupitia ''apatheia '' (kwa [[Kigiriki]]: απαθεια), yaani''apatheia kuwa na lengo, kuwa na "uamuzi wazi" si kutofautiana''). Mashauri ya moja kwa moja ya falsafa ya uvumilivu ni fadhila, fikira na [[sheria ya kimaumbile]], zinazojumuisha kuendeleza kujidhibiti kibinafsi na [[ujasiri]] wa kiakili kama njia za kuzishinda [[hisia haribifu]]. Mwenye kuifuata falsafa ya uvumilivu hanuii kuzizima hisia, bali kuepuka shida za kihisia, kwa kuendeleza uamuzi wazi na utulivu wa ndani kupitia uzoefu makini wa kimantiki, kutafakari, na kuziweka fikira pamoja.
 
Msingi wa kimaadili wa falsafa ya uvumilivu ni kuwa "zuri liko katika hali ya nafsi", yenyewe inaonyeshwa katika [[hekima]] na kujidhibiti, hivyo kuboresha ustawi wa kiroho: "Fadhila" inatokana na "nia" ambayo inawiana na maumbile."<ref name="Russel" /> Kanuni inatumika katika uhusiano wa kibinafsi, yaani: "kuwa huru kutokana na hasira na wivu".<ref name="Russel" />
Rudishwa kutoka "https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maana_ya_maisha"