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Badiliko la aya kuhusu bakteriofagi
Mstari 136:
{{main|Endospora}}
[[File:Gram Stain Anthrax.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Bacillus anthracis (yenye doa la zambarau) inyokua kwenye ugiligili wa uti wa mgongo]]
Baadhi ya [[Jenasi|nasaba]] ya bakteria wa Gram-chanaya, kama vile Bacillus, Clostridium, Sporohalobacter, Anaerobacter na ''Heliobacterium,'' zinaweza kutengeneza maumbo yaliyotulia yenye uwezo kustahimili yaitwayo endospora.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nicholson WL, Munakata N, Horneck G, Melosh HJ, Setlow P |title=Resistance of Bacillus endospores to extreme terrestrial and extraterrestrial environments |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=548–72 |year=2000 |month=September |pmid=10974126 |pmc=99004 |url=http://mmbr.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10974126 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.64.3.548-572.2000}}</ref> Karibu katika visa vyote, endospora moja hutengenezwa na huu siyo mchakato wa uzazi, ingawa ''Anaerobacter'' wanaweza kutengeneza endospora kwenye seli moja.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Siunov A, Nikitin D, Suzina N, Dmitriev V, Kuzmin N, Duda V |title=Phylogenetic status of Anaerobacter polyendosporus, an anaerobic, polysporogenic bacterium | url=http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/reprint/49/3/1119.pdf |journal=Int J Syst Bacteriol |volume=49 Pt 3 |issue=|pages=1119&ndash;24 | year =1999|pmid = 10425769|format=PDF}}</ref> Endospora huwa na kitovu muhimu cha satoplazimu chenye [[DNA|DNAADN]] na ribosomu iliyozungukwa na rusu ya gamba na kulindwa na ngozi ngumu isiyopenyeka.
 
Endospora haina umetaboli usiyoweza kuonekana nainaweza kustahimmili hali mbaya ya kimwili na kikemikali, kama vile viwango vya juu vya mwanga wa miale ya jua, mionzi ya gamma, sabuni za maji, vipukusi, joto, kuzizima, shinikizo na ukavu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nicholson W, Fajardo-Cavazos P, Rebeil R, Slieman T, Riesenman P, Law J, Xue Y |title=Bacterial endospores and their significance in stress resistance |journal=Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek |volume=81 |issue=1&ndash;4 |pages=27&ndash;32 |year=2002 |pmid=12448702 |doi=10.1023/A:1020561122764}}</ref> Katika hali hii iliyotulia, viumbe hawa wanaweza kusalia na uwezo wa kujitegemea kwa mamilioni ya miaka,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vreeland R, Rosenzweig W, Powers D |title=Isolation of a 250 million-year-old halotolerant bacterium from a primary salt crystal |journal=Nature |volume=407 |issue=6806 |pages=897&ndash;900 |year=2000 |pmid=11057666 |doi=10.1038/35038060}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Cano R, Borucki M |title=Revival and identification of bacterial spores in 25- to 40-million-year-old Dominican amber |journal=Science |volume=268 |issue=5213 |pages=1060&ndash;4 |year=1995 |pmid=7538699 |doi=10.1126/science.7538699}}</ref> na endospora huwezesha bakteria hata kushi kwenye ombwe tupu na mionzi ya anga.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nicholson W, Schuerger A, Setlow P |title=The solar UV environment and bacterial spore UV resistance: considerations for Earth-to-Mars transport by natural processes and human spaceflight |journal=Mutat Res |volume=571 |issue=1&ndash;2 |pages=249&ndash;64 |year=2005|pmid = 15748651 |doi=10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2004.10.012}}</ref> Aidha, bakteria ambao hutengeneza endospora wanaweza kusababisha ugonjwa kwa mfano, unaweza kupata kimeta kwa kuvuta hewa yenye endospora za ''Bacillus'' ''anthracis,'' na uchafuzi wa vindnda vya ndani na endospora za '' Clostridium tetani'' husababisha pepopunda.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hatheway CL |title=Toxigenic clostridia |journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=66–98 |year=1990 |month=January |pmid=2404569 |pmc=358141 |url=http://cmr.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=2404569}}</ref>
Mstari 193:
Mbinu nyingi za maabara za kukuza bakteria hutumiakiasi kikubwa cha virutubisho kuzalisha kiasi kikubwa cha seli kwa bei nafuu na kwa haraka. Hata hivyo, katika mazingira ya asilia, rutuba ni adimu na kwa hivyo ina maana kuwa bakteria haziwezi kuendelea kuzaliana kwa muda usiojulikana. Kuadimika kwa virutubishi imesababisha mageuzi ya ukuaji wa mikakati mbalimbali (angalia r/K nadharia ya uteuzi). Baadhi ya viumbe vinaweza kukua kwa haraka sana wakati virutubisho vipatikanapo, kama vile ukuaji wa mwani (na sainobaktera) ambazo mara nyingi hutokea katika maziwa wakati wa msimu wa joto.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Paerl H, Fulton R, Moisander P, Dyble J |title=Harmful freshwater algal blooms, with an emphasis on cyanobacteria |journal=ScientificWorldJournal |volume=1 |issue=|pages=76&ndash;113 |year=2001|pmid=12805693 |doi=10.1100/tsw.2001.16}}</ref> Vijiumbe vingine hukabiliana na mazingira mbaya, kama vile uzalishaji wa antibiotiki nyingi na Streptomaises ili kuzuia ukuaji wa vijiumbe shindani.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Challis G, Hopwood D |title=Synergy and contingency as driving forces for the evolution of multiple secondary metabolite production by Streptomyces species | url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/100/suppl_2/14555 |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci USA |volume=100 Suppl 2 |issue=|pages=14555&ndash;61 |year=2003|pmid=12970466 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1934677100 |pmc=304118}}</ref> Katika maumbile, viumbe vingi huishi katika jamii (mfano bio-filamu) ambayo inaweza kuruhusu kuongezeka kwa ugavi wa virutubisho na ulinzi kutoka mazingira finyu.<ref name="Davey"></ref> Mahusiano haya yananaweza kuwa muhimu kwa ukuaji wa viumbe fulani au kundi la viumbe (sintrofi).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kooijman S, Auger P, Poggiale J, Kooi B |title=Quantitative steps in symbiogenesis and the evolution of homeostasis |journal=Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=435&ndash;63 |year=2003 |pmid=14558592 |doi=10.1017/S1464793102006127}}</ref>
 
Ukuaji wa bakteria hufuata awamu tatu. Wakati idadi ya bakteria huingia kwanza katika mazingira yenye idadi kubwa ya virutubisho inayoruhusu ukuaji, chembechembe hujiselehi na mazingira yao mapya. Awamu ya kwanza ya ukuaji wa uchumi ni awamu timu, ni kipindi cha kukua polepole wakati seli zinazoea kuishi katika mazingara yenye virutubishi vingi na kujitayarisha kwa ukuaji wa haraka. Awamu ya timu ina viwango vya juu vya mmeng'enyo wa vyakula, kwani protini muhimu kwa ukuaji wa haraka zinazalishwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Prats C, López D, Giró A, Ferrer J, Valls J |title=Individual-based modelling of bacterial cultures to study the microscopic causes of the lag phase |journal=J Theor Biol |volume=241 |issue=4 |pages=939&ndash;53 |year=2006|pmid = 16524598 |doi=10.1016/j.jtbi.2006.01.029}}</ref> Awamu ya pili ya ukuaji hujulikana kama awamu ya logarithimu (awamu ya logi ), pia inajulikana kama awamu kielelezo. Awamu hii ina ukuaji wakielel ezo wa haraka. Kiwango cha ukuaji cha seli katika awamu hii inajulikana kama ''kiwango cha ukuaji'' ''(k)'', na muda seli zinachukua kuongezeka mara mbili inajulikana kama ''muda wa kizazi'' ''(g''). Wakati wa awamu logi, virutubishi humetabolaiziwa kwa kasi sana hadi kirutubisho kimoja kuisha na kuwa kikwazo cha ukuaji. Awamu ya mwisho ya ukuaji ni ''awamu simamu'' na husababishwa na virutubisho vilivyomalizika. Seli hupunguza shughuli zao za metaboli na hujitosheleza na protini zisizo-muhimu kwenye chembechembe. Awamu simamu ni kipindi cha mpito kutoka ukuaji wa haraka kwa hali finyu ya na witikio na kuna ongezeko kwa uelekezi wa jeni zinazohusika katika kutengeneza DNAADN ,metaboli wa vito-oksidishaji na usafirishaji wa madini.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hecker M, Völker U |title=General stress response of Bacillus subtilis and other bacteria |journal=Adv Microb Physiol |volume=44 |issue=|pages=35&ndash;91 |year=2001|pmid=11407115 |doi=10.1016/S0065-2911(01)44011-2}}</ref>
 
==Jenetikia==
{{main|Plasmidi|Jenomi}}
Bakteria wengi huwa na kromosomu moja ya mviringo na ukubwa kutoka misingi jozi 160,000 katika bakteria ya endosimbiotik ''Candidatus Carsonella ruddii'',<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nakabachi A, Yamashita A, Toh H, Ishikawa H, Dunbar H, Moran N, Hattori M |title=The 160-kilobase genome of the bacterial endosymbiont Carsonella |journal=Science |volume=314 |issue=5797 |pages=267 |year=2006 |pmid=17038615 |doi=10.1126/science.1134196}}</ref> hadi misingi jozi 12,200,000 katika bakteria zilizo na makao kwenye ''Sorangium cellulosum''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pradella S, Hans A, Spröer C, Reichenbach H, Gerth K, Beyer S |title=Characterisation, genome size and genetic manipulation of the myxobacterium Sorangium cellulosum So ce56 |journal=Arch Microbiol |volume=178 |issue=6 |pages=484–92 |year=2002 |pmid=12420170 |doi=10.1007/s00203-002-0479-2}}</ref> Spirochaete za [[Jenasi|jenasi]] ''Borrelia'' ni mojawapo wa bakteria ya kipekee katika utaratibu huu, huku bakteria kama vile ''Borrelia burgdorferi'', inayosababisha ugonjwa wa lyme,ikiwa na kromosumu moja kwenye laini. Jeni katika jinomu za bakteria kawaida huwa kijikamba kimoja kiendelezi cha DNAADN na ingawa kuna aina mbalimbali za introni zinazopatikana kwenye bakteria, ni nadra ikilinganishwa na ukariotes.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Belfort M, Reaban ME, Coetzee T, Dalgaard JZ |title=Prokaryotic introns and inteins: a panoply of form and function |journal=J. Bacteriol. |volume=177 |issue=14 |pages=3897–903 |date=1 July 1995|pmid=7608058 |url=http://jb.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7608058 |pmc=177115 }}</ref>
 
Bakteria pia zaweza kuwa na plasmids ambazo ni DNAADN ndogo zenye kromosumu za ziada zinazoweza kuwa na jeni zenye kupinga antibiotiki au virusi<ref>{{Cite web|title=Plasmid|url=https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Plasmid|work=Genome.gov|accessdate=2021-03-30|language=en}}</ref>.
 
Bakteria, kama viumbe hukuzana bila ngono, hurithi nakala za jeni za kufanana za wazazi wao (yaani ni klonal). Hata hivyo, bakteria zote zaweza kubadilika na uteuzi juu ya mabadiliko ya maumbile nyenzo katika [[DNA]]ADN zaoyao inayosababishwa na kuja pamoja kwa maumbile au miuteshion. Miuteshions hutotokana na makosa yaliyotokana wakati DNAADN inapojiiga au kutokana na kujieka wazi kwa visababishaji vya tarasani. Viwango vya mabadiliko ya viinisaba hutofautiana sana kati ya aina tofauti ya bakteria na hata miongoni mwa kloni mbalimbali za bakteria aina moja.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Denamur E, Matic I |title=Evolution of mutation rates in bacteria |journal=Mol Microbiol |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=820&ndash;7 |year=2006 |pmid=16677295 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2958.2006.05150.x}}</ref> Mabadiliko ya kimaumbile katika jinomu za bakteria huja aidha kutokana na muteshion za nadra au "muteshion kutokana na hali finyu", ambapo jeni zinazohusika haswa katika michakato kadhaa za kudumisha ukuaji huongeza kiwango cha muteshion.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wright B |title=Stress-directed adaptive mutations and evolution |journal=Mol Microbiol |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=643&ndash;50 |year=2004 |pmid=15101972 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2958.2004.04012.x}}</ref>
 
Baadhi ya bakteria pia kuhamisha nyenzo za maumbile miongoni mwa seli. Hii inaweza kutokea kwa njia tatu kuu. Kwanza, bakteria inaweza kuchukua DNAADN za kutoka nje ya seli chembe kwenye mazingira yao, katika mchakato huitwao mabadiliko. Jeni pia zaweza kusafirishwa kwa wa transdakshion wakati wa mkungamanisho wa bakteriafej huingiza DNAADN za kigeni kwenye kromosomu. Njia ya tatu ya kuhamisha jeni ni kukonjugati kwa bakteria ambapo DNAADN huhamishwa kwa njia ya moja kwa moja baina ya chembechembe. Njia hii ya kupatikana kwa jeni kutoka bakteria zingine au mazingira inajulikana kama uhamisho wa mlalo wa jeni na inaweza kuwa ya kawaida katika hali ya kawaida.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Davison J |title=Genetic exchange between bacteria in the environment |journal=Plasmid |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=73&ndash;91 |year=1999|pmid = 10489325 |doi=10.1006/plas.1999.1421}}</ref> Uhamisho wa jeni ni muhimu katika upinzani dhidi ya antibiotiki kwani huruhusu uhamisho wa haraka wa jeni pinzani kati miongoni mwa pathojeni.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hastings P, Rosenberg S, Slack A |title=Antibiotic-induced lateral transfer of antibiotic resistance |journal=Trends Microbiol |volume=12 |issue=9 |pages=401&ndash;4 |year=2004 |pmid=15337159 |doi=10.1016/j.tim.2004.07.003}}</ref>
 
=== Bakteriofeji ===
Bakteriofeji ni virusi ambavyo vina uwezo wa kuwashambulia bakteria<ref>{{Cite web|title=understanding Bacteriophages in details|url=https://www.thephage.xyz/2021/02/understanding-bacteriophages-in-details.html|accessdate=2021-03-30|language=en}}</ref>. Kuna aina nyingi za bakteriofeji, baadhi yao kuwashambulia bakteria na kuwaua ili wazaliane kwa wingi , wakati wengine huingiza kromosomu katika bakteria. Bakteriofeji inaweza kuwa na vinasaba vya kuchangia kwenye fenotaipu ya mwenyeji wake: kwa mfano, katika ukuaji wa [[Escherichia coli O157:H7|Escherichia coli O157: H7]] na ''[./Https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clostridium%20botulinum Clostridium botulinum]'' , viinisaba sumu viliweza kusaafilisha na bakteriofeji ambavyo baadaye viliasili hata bakteria wasiokuwa na madhara ya kusababisha magonjwa kupokea vinasaba vilivyowapa uwezo wa kusababisha magonjwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Brüssow H, Canchaya C, Hardt WD |title=Phages and the evolution of bacterial pathogens: from genomic rearrangements to lysogenic conversion |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=560–602 |year=2004 |month=September |pmid=15353570 |pmc=515249 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.68.3.560-602.2004}}</ref> Bakteria hupinga maambukizi ya feji kupitia mfumo wa miundo zuifu ambazo huharibu [[DNA]] za kigeni,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bickle TA, Krüger DH |title=Biology of DNA restriction |journal=Microbiol. Rev. |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=434–50 |date=1 June 1993|pmid=8336674 |pmc=372918 |url=http://mmbr.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8336674 }}</ref> na mfumo unaotumia utaratibu wa CRISPR kuhifadhi mabaki ya jinomu za fej ambazo bakteria imetengamana nazo hapo awali, ambayo huziruhusu kuzuia kuiga na kuongezeka kwa virusi kwa njia ya kuzuia RNA.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Barrangou R, Fremaux C, Deveau H, ''et al.'' |title=CRISPR provides acquired resistance against viruses in prokaryotes |journal=Science (journal) |volume=315 |issue=5819 |pages=1709–12 |year=2007 |month=March |pmid=17379808 |doi=10.1126/science.1138140}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Brouns SJ, Jore MM, Lundgren M, ''et al.'' |title=Small CRISPR RNAs guide antiviral defense in prokaryotes |journal=Science (journal) |volume=321 |issue=5891 |pages=960–4 |year=2008 |month=August |pmid=18703739 |doi=10.1126/science.1159689}}</ref> Mfumo huu wa CRISPR huwezesha bakteria kuwa na kinga dhidi ya maambukizi kwa magonjwa.
 
==Tabia==
Line 249 ⟶ 246:
[[File:Streptococcus mutans Gram.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mabadiliko ya Streptococcus inavyoonekana katika doa la Gram]]
{{main|Uainishaji wa kisayansi}}
Madhumuni ya uainishaji ni kuelezea spishi tofauti za bakteria kwa kuzitaja na kuwaweka viumbe msingi yanayofanana. Bakteria wanaweza kwa misingi ya umbo la kiini chao, umetaboli wa seli au kwa mujibu wa tofauti wa yaliyomo kwenye seli kama vile [[DNA]]ADN, asidi za mafuta, rangi asili, antijeni s na kuinoni s.<ref name="Thomson"></ref> Ingawa skimu hizi ziliruhusu utambulisho na Uainishaji wa bakteria, haikubainika wazi kama tofauti hizi ziliwakilisha aina mbalimbali za spishi mbili tofauti ama aina ya spishi moja. uhakika huu umebadilisha kutokana na ukosefu wa miundo tofauti katika bakteria wengi, kama vile uhamisho jeni lateral kati ya aina unrelated.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Boucher Y, Douady CJ, Papke RT, Walsh DA, Boudreau ME, Nesbo CL, Case RJ, Doolittle WF |title=Lateral gene transfer and the origins of prokaryotic groups |journal=Annu Rev Genet |volume=37 |pages=283–328|year = 2003|pmid=14616063 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genet.37.050503.084247 |url=http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.genet.37.050503.084247}}</ref> Kutokana na uhamisho wa jeni ya chini, baadhi ya bakteria wanaohusiana kwa karibu wanaweza kuwa umbo na umetaboli tofauti. Ili kuondokana na dukuduku hili, uainishaji wa bakteria wa kisasa husisitiza mpangilio wa molekiuli, kwa kutumia mbinu za kimaumbile kama vile guanine uwiano wa uamuzi wa sitosini uzalishaji wa genome-genome, pamoja na uratibishaji wa jeni ambazo hazijapitia ubadilishanaji mkubwa wa jeni za chini, kama vile jeni ya RNA.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Olsen GJ, Woese CR, Overbeek R |title=The winds of (evolutionary) change: breathing new life into microbiology |journal=Journal of Bacteriology |volume=176 |issue=1 |pages=1–6 |year=1994 |month=January |pmid=8282683 |pmc=205007 |url=http://jb.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8282683}}</ref> Uainisho wa bakteria umetokana na Juzuu la Kimataifa kuhusu Mfumo Taaluma ya Bakteria,<ref> [http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/ IJSEM - Home]</ref> na Muongozo wa Bergey wa utaratibu Taaluma ya Bakteria.<ref>[279] ^ Bergey's Manual Trust</ref> Kamati ya Kimataifa juu ya Utaratibu Wa Bakteriolojia (ICSB) ndiyo hulinda kanuni za kimataifa za kuwapa majina makundi mbalimbali ya bakteria na kuwaweka katika viwango tofauti katika Kanuni ya Kimataifa ya majina ya Bakteria.
 
Awali neno "bakteria" lilitumika kwa vijiumbe vyote vidogo, prokaryoti za seli moja. Hata hivyo, mifumo ya molekiuli ilionyesha maisha ya prokaryoti yakiwa na sehemu mbili tofauti ambazo awali ziliitwa ''Eubacteria'' na ''Archaebacteria,'' lakini ambayo kwa sasa inazoitwa ''Bakteria'' na ''[[Archaea|Akea]]'' ambayo ilitokana na mabadiliko ya kujitegemea kutoka mababu zao.</ref> Akea na yukaryoti hufanana sana kinyume na ilivyo na bakteria. Hii miundo miwili, pamoja na Yukarya, ndio msingi wa mfumo wa sehemu tatu ambayo kwa sasa ndiyo hutumika sana katika uainisho wa mikrobiolojia.<ref name="Gupta">{{cite journal |author=Gupta R |title=The natural evolutionary relationships among prokaryotes |journal=Crit Rev Microbiol |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=111–31 |year=2000 |pmid=10890353 |doi=10.1080/10408410091154219}}</ref> Hata hivyo, kutokana na kuanzishwa kwa hivi karibuni mifumo ya molekiuli na kuongezeka kwa kasi kwa idadi ya mfululizo wa genome waliopo,uainisho wa bakteria unaendelea kubadilika na kuwa eneo pana.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Doolittle RF |title=Evolutionary aspects of whole-genome biology |journal=Curr Opin Struct Biol |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=248–253 |year=2005 |pmid=11837318 |doi=10.1016/j.sbi.2005.04.001}}</ref> Kwa mfano, wanabiolojia wachache wanadai kuwa Akea na Yukaryoti walitokana na mabadiliko chanya ya bakteria ya Gram.<ref name="Cavalier-Smith2002">{{cite journal |author=Cavalier-Smith T |title=The neomuran origin of archaebacteria, the negibacterial root of the universal tree and bacterial megaclassification |journal=Int J Syst Evol Microbiol |volume=52 |issue=Pt 1 |pages=7–76 |year=2002 |pmid=11837318}}</ref>
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Mbinu za mazingira maalumu zimebuniwa ili kukuza ukuaji na kutambua bakteria fulani, huku zikizuia ukuaji wa baadhi ya sampuli za bakteria. Mara nyingi mbinu hizi huwa zimeundwa kwa spishi maalumu, kwa mfano, sampuli ya sputum inaweza kushughulikwa ili kuonyesha ni vijiumbe gani husababishakichomi, ilihali sampuli za kinyesi hukuzwa katika mazingira maalumu kutambua vijiumbe ambao husababisha kuhara, huku ukidhibiti ukuaji wa vijiumbe visivyoleta magonjwa. Sampuli ambazo kwa kawaida huwa tasa, kama vile [[Damu|damu]], mkojo au maji ya mti wa mgongo, hukuzwa katika mazingira ambayo yanaweza kukuza vijiumbe vya kila nui.<ref name="Thomson"></ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Weinstein M |title=Clinical importance of blood cultures |journal=Clin Lab Med |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=9&ndash;16 |year=1994|pmid = 8181237}}</ref> Mara tu kijiumbe kinachosababisha magonjwa kinapotengwa, kinaweza kuelezewa zaidi kupitia kwa umbo lake, ruwaza za ukuaji kama vile (ukuaji wa aerobiki au ukuaji, mifumo ya hemolisi) na matumizi ya mabaka.
 
Kama ilivyo na uinisho wa bakteria, matumizi ya njia ya molekiuli katika utambulishio wa bakteria yanaendelea kuongezeka. Matibabu ya kutumia vifaa vya msingi wa DNAADN, kama vile mchakato wa mmenyeko wa polimerase, unazidi kuwa na umaarufu kutokana na umahususi na kasi yake, ikilinganishwa njia za ukuaji katika mazingira maalumu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Louie M, Louie L, Simor AE |title=The role of DNA amplification technology in the diagnosis of infectious diseases |journal=CMAJ | url=http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/163/3/301 |volume=163 |issue=3 |pages=301–309 |date=8 August 2000|pmid=10951731 |pmc=80298 }}</ref> Aidha, mbinu hizi huruhu uchunguzi na utambuzi wa seli zilizo hai lakini ambazo hazijakuzwa katika mazingira maalumu ambazo hazijigawanyi lakini zina umetaboli.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Oliver J |title=The viable but nonculturable state in bacteria |url=http://www.msk.or.kr/jsp/view_old_journalD.jsp?paperSeq=2134 |journal=J Microbiol |volume=43 Spec No |issue= |pages=93–100 |year=2005 |pmid=15765062 |access-date=2015-05-07 |archive-date=2013-04-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130404021821/http://www.msk.or.kr/jsp/view_old_journalD.jsp?paperSeq=2134 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Hata hivyo, kando na kutumia mbinu hizi zilizoboreshwa, idadi kamili ya spishi za bakteria haijulikani na haiwezi kukadiriwa na uhakika wowote. Kufuatia uainisho wa sasa, spishi za bakteria zinazojulikana ni chini ya 9,000 (ikiwa ni pamoja na cyanobacteria),<ref>ABRS - Numbers of living species in Australia and the World Report - Excutive Summary</ref> lakini majaribio ya kukisia viwango kamili vya baketeria mbalimbali vimekuwa kati ya <sup></sup>107 hadi 109 jumla ya spishi-na hata hayo makadirio haya mbalimbali yanaweza kuwa na viwango vingi vya kiasi mabalimbali.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Curtis TP, Sloan WT, Scannell JW |title=Estimating prokaryotic diversity and its limits |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=99 |issue=16 |pages=10494–9 |year=2002 |month=August |pmid=12097644 |pmc=124953 |doi=10.1073/pnas.142680199}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Schloss PD, Handelsman J |title=Status of the microbial census |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |volume=68 |issue=4 |pages=686–91 |year=2004 |month=December |pmid=15590780 |pmc=539005 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.68.4.686-691.2004}}</ref>
 
==Mwingiliano na viumbe wengine==
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Katika [[udongo]], vijiumbe wanaoishi kwenye raizosifia ya (a ukanda wa ozoni ambao ni pamoja na mizizi na udongo hunata kwenye mizizi baada ya kutikisa) hutekeleza jukumu la kuongeza nitrojeni kwa kuwageuza gesi ya nitrojeni kuwa misombo ya nitrojeni.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Barea J, Pozo M, Azcón R, Azcón-Aguilar C |title=Microbial co-operation in the rhizosphere | url=http://jxb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/56/417/1761 |journal=J Exp Bot |volume=56 |issue=417 |pages=1761&ndash;78 |year=2005 |pmid=15911555 |doi=10.1093/jxb/eri197}}</ref> Hii husaidia kutooa aina ya haidrojeni ambayo inanyonyek kwa urahisi na mimea mingi, ambayo haiwezi kujiongezea oksijeni yenyewe. Bakteria wengine wengi hupatikana kama saimbioti katika binadamu na viumbe wengine. Kwa mfano, uwepo wa spishi za bakteria zaidi ya 1,000 katika utumbo wa binadamu unaweza kuchanga katika kinga ya utumbo mmeng'enyo wa vitamini kaama vile asidi ya foliki vitamini k na [[biotin]], kubadilisha [[protini ya maziwa]] na [[asidi laktik]] (Tazama ''[[Lactobacillus]]''), pamoja na uchachushaji wa kabohaidreti kubwa zisizomeng'enyeka.<ref>{{cite journal |author=O'Hara A, Shanahan F |title=The gut flora as a forgotten organ |journal=EMBO Rep |volume=7 |issue=7 |pages=688&ndash;93 |year=2006 |pmid=16819463 |doi=10.1038/sj.embor.7400731 |pmc=1500832}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Zoetendal E, Vaughan E, de Vos W |title=A microbial world within us |journal=Mol Microbiol |volume=59 |issue=6 |pages=1639&ndash;50 |year=2006 |pmid=16553872 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2958.2006.05056.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Gorbach S |title=Lactic acid bacteria and human health |journal=Ann Med |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=37&ndash;41 |year=1990|pmid = 2109988 |doi=10.3109/07853899009147239}}</ref> Uwepo wa utumbo huu hudhibiti wa vimelea ambavyo husababisha magonjwa (kawaida kwa kutengwa kwa lazima) na bakteria hawa wa manufaa huuzwa kama chakula mbadala cha probiotiki.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Salminen S, Gueimonde M, Isolauri E |title=Probiotics that modify disease risk | url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/135/5/1294 |journal=J Nutr |volume=135 |issue=5 |pages=1294&ndash;8 |date=1 May 2005|pmid=15867327 }}</ref>
[[File:SalmonellaNIAID.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Picha inayoonyesha bakteriainayosababisha homa ya matumbo ikivamia seli za binadamu katika mazingira maalumu]]
 
===Vimelea vinavyosababisha magonjwa===
{{Main|Bakteria zinazosababisha maradhi}}
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Maambukizi ya bakteria yanaweza kutibiwa na [[antibaotiki]], ambazo huitwa antibakteriasida kama zinaweza kuua vimelea, au kusitisha ukuaji wa bakteria. Kuna antibaotiki za aina nyingi na kila kundi huzuia mchakato tofauti na ule wa pathojenikando na ule unaopatikana kwenye mazingira ilimo. Mfano wa jinsi bakteria wanavyotoa sumu kiuchaguzi ni kloramfebikoli na puromaisini, ambayo huzuia ribosomu ya bakteria, lakini si ribosomu ya yukaryoti ya umbo tofauti.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Yonath A, Bashan A |title=Ribosomal crystallography: initiation, peptide bond formation, and amino acid polymerization are hampered by antibiotics |journal=Annu Rev Microbiol |volume=58 |pages=233&ndash;51 |year=2004 |pmid=15487937 |doi=10.1146/annurev.micro.58.030603.123822}}</ref> Antibiotiki hutumiwa katika kutibu magonjwa ya binadamu na katika kilimo kikubwa kukuza ukuaji wa wanyama, ambapo zinaweza kuchangia katika ukuaji wa kasi ya uwezo wa kupigana na idadi ya bakteria.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Khachatourians GG |title=Agricultural use of antibiotics and the evolution and transfer of antibiotic-resistant bacteria |journal=CMAJ |volume=159 |issue=9 |pages=1129–36 |year=1998 |month=November |pmid=9835883 |pmc=1229782 |url=http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/pmidlookup?view=reprint&pmid=9835883}}</ref> Maambukiziyanaweza kuzuiwa kwa kutumia maagizo ya antiseptiki kama vile kusafisha ngozi kabla ya kuitoboa kwa sindano au sirenji, na kwa utunzaji mzuri wa katheta za nyumbani. Vifaa vya upasuaji na vya meno pia husafishwa kuzuia kuchafuka kutokana na bakteria. Sabuni za kuosha kama vile blichi hutumiwa kuua bakteria au pathojeni zingine katika sehemu mablimbali ili kuzuia uchafu na uwezekano wa kuambukizwa ugonjwa.
 
===Maadui===
{{main|Bakteriofagi}}
[[Bakteriofagi]] (pia fagi au vilabakteria) ni virusi vilivyo na uwezo wa kushambulia na kuua bakteria ili kuongeza idadi yao<ref>{{Cite web|title=understanding Bacteriophages in details|url=https://www.thephage.xyz/2021/02/understanding-bacteriophages-in-details.html|accessdate=2021-03-30|language=en}}</ref>. Kuna spishi nyingi za bakteriofagi zinazoshambulia spishi zote za bakteria na [[arkea]] kwa kuingiza ADN au ARN ndani yao na kushirikisha utaratibu wa seli kutoa [[virioni]] mpya. Bakteria hupinga maambukizo ya fagi kupitia mfumo tata wa kijeni ambao huharibu ADN au ARN ya kigeni<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bickle TA, Krüger DH |title=Biology of DNA restriction |journal=Microbiol. Rev. |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=434–50 |date=1 June 1993|pmid=8336674 |pmc=372918 |url=http://mmbr.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8336674 }}</ref>.
 
[[Jenomu]] ya bakteriofagi nyingi huunganishwa katika ile ya [[kimelewa]] na inaweza kukaa [[bwete]] kwa muda wa [[kizazi|vizazi]] vingi. Baadhi ya jeni za bakteriofagi zinaweza kuchangia [[sifajeni]] (fenotipi) ya vimelewa vyao. Kwa mfano, [[ukoo|koo]] fulani za ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' na za ''[[Clostridium botulinum]]'' zina [[sumu]] kwa sababu ya [[toksini]] zinazozalishwa na jeni za bakteriofagi, wakati koo bila jeni hizo hazina sumu. Jeni hizo hunakiliwa na bakteria pamoja na jeni zao binafsi, ambayo inawapatia uwezo wa kusababisha magonjwa<ref>{{cite journal |author=Brüssow H, Canchaya C, Hardt WD |title=Phages and the evolution of bacterial pathogens: from genomic rearrangements to lysogenic conversion |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=560–602 |year=2004 |month=September |pmid=15353570 |pmc=515249 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.68.3.560-602.2004}}</ref>.
 
==Umuhimu katika teknolojia na viwanda==
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Bakteria pia zinaweza kutumika badala ya dawa kuua wadudu katiaka kudhibiti wadudu kibiolojia. Kwa kawaida hii huhusisha '' Bacillus thuringiensis'' (pia huitwa BT), bakteria ya Gram-chanya inayopatikana katika udongo. Spishi ndogo za hii bakteria hutumika kama dawa maalumu ya kuua wadudu ya Lepidoptera inayojulikana kwa jina la madukani kama vile Dipel na Thuricide.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Aronson AI, Shai Y |title=Why Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal toxins are so effective: unique features of their mode of action |journal=FEMS Microbiol. Lett. |volume=195 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |year=2001 |pmid=11166987 |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.2001.tb10489.x}}</ref> Kwa sababu ya umaalumu wao, dawa hizi zinaaminika kuwa hazina madhara yoyote katika mazingira, bila atahri yoyote kwa binadamu wanyama, wadudu wa kufyonza na wadudu wengine wengi wenye manufaa kwa binadamu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bozsik A |title=Susceptibility of adult Coccinella septempunctata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) to insecticides with different modes of action |journal=Pest Manag Sci |volume=62 |issue=7 |pages=651–4 |year=2006 |pmid=16649191 |doi=10.1002/ps.1221}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Chattopadhyay A, Bhatnagar N, Bhatnagar R |title=Bacterial insecticidal toxins |journal=Crit Rev Microbiol |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=33–54 |year=2004 |pmid=15116762 |doi=10.1080/10408410490270712}}</ref>
 
Kwa sababu ya uwezo wao kukua kwa haraka na urahisi ambao wanaweza kubadilishwa, bakteria hutumika pakubwa katika bayolojia ya molekiuli{0,{/0} taaluma ya nasaba au [[jenitikia]] na [[biokemia]]. Kwa kubadilika katika maumbo ya DNAADN ya bakteria na kuchunguza umbo la nje linalotokea, wanasayansi wanaweza kujua dhima ya jeni, [[Kimeng'enya|vimeng'enya]] na njia za umetaboli katika bakteria, na kutumia ujuzi huu kwenye wanyama wakubwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Serres MH, Gopal S, Nahum LA, Liang P, Gaasterland T, Riley M |title=A functional update of the Escherichia coli K-12 genome |journal=Genome Biology |volume=2 |issue=9 |pages=RESEARCH0035 |year=2001 |pmid=11574054 |pmc=56896 |url=http://genomebiology.com/1465-6906/2/RESEARCH0035 |doi=10.1186/gb-2001-2-9-research0035}}</ref> Lengo la kulewa biokemi ya seli na hufikia kiwango chake tata katika usagaji wa wa iadi kubwa ya vimeng'enya na maelezo ya data ya jeni katika mtindo wa hisabati ya viumbe wote. Hali hii inaweza kufikiwa katika baadhi ya bakteria ambao wametafitiwa vizuri, wenye maumbo ya umetaboli wa ''Escherichia coli'' ambao kwa sasa wanazalishwa na kujaribiwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Almaas E, Kovács B, Vicsek T, Oltvai Z, Barabási A |title=Global organization of metabolic fluxes in the bacterium Escherichia coli |journal=Nature |volume=427 |issue=6977 |pages=839–43 |year=2004 |pmid=14985762 |doi=10.1038/nature02289}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Reed JL, Vo TD, Schilling CH, Palsson BO |title=An expanded genome-scale model of Escherichia coli K-12 (iJR904 GSM/GPR) |journal=Genome Biol. |volume=4 |issue=9 |pages=R54 |year=2003 |pmid=12952533 |doi=10.1186/gb-2003-4-9-r54 |pmc=193654}}</ref> Uelewa wa umetaboli wa bakteria na jenetikia yake inawezesha matumizi ya bioteknolojia katika uhandisi wa bakteria kwa ajili ya uzalishaji wa protini ya matibabu, kama vile insulini, nyenzo za ukuaji, au kingamwili.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Walsh G |title=Therapeutic insulins and their large-scale manufacture |journal=Appl Microbiol Biotechnol |volume=67 |issue=2 |pages=151&ndash;9 |year=2005 |pmid=15580495 |doi=10.1007/s00253-004-1809-x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Graumann K, Premstaller A |title=Manufacturing of recombinant therapeutic proteins in microbial systems |journal=Biotechnol J |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=164&ndash;86 |year=2006 |pmid=16892246 |doi=10.1002/biot.200500051}}</ref>
 
==Tazama Pia==
Rudishwa kutoka "https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijasumu"