Wanawake katika uchakataji pombe
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Wanawake wamekuwa wakifanya kazi ya utengenezaji wa pombe tangu zamani. Ingawa jamii za Magharibi zimeona utengenezaji wa pombe kama uwanja unaotawaliwa na wanaume kwa miaka 150 iliyopita, kwa kawaida, ilikuwa inashughulikiwa na wanawake. Uchunguzi wa ethnografia na akiolojia umeonyesha kuwa pombe ilikuwa mseto wa kukusanya au mila ya kuoka, ambayo ilikuwa majukumu ya wanawake ulimwenguni kote. Kuanzia ushahidi wa mwanzo wa utengenezaji wa pombe mnamo 7000 KWK, hadi biashara ya utengenezaji wa pombe wakati wa viwanda, wanawake walikuwa waendeshaji wa pombe kuu katika mabara yote yanayokaliwa. Katika tamaduni nyingi, miungu, miungu wa kike na walindaji wa bia walikuwa vyombo vya kike ambavyo vilihusishwa na uzazi.
Kuanzia katikati ya karne ya 18, wanawake wengi walizuiliwa kushiriki katika utengenezaji wa pombe na wakapewa majukumu kama wauza baa, waendeshaji baa, wauzaji wa chupa, au makatibu wa bia. Katika maeneo yasiyo na viwanda vingi, waliendelea kutoa pombe za nyumbani na vileo vya jadi. Kuanzia katikati ya karne ya 20, wanawake walianza kufanya kazi kama duka la dawa kwa vituo vya kutengeneza pombe. Kuanzia miaka ya 1960 na 1970, walianza kuingia tena kwenye uwanja kama watengenezaji pombe.
Historia
haririKatika jamii nyingi za Magharibi, utengenezaji wa pombe umeonekana kama "uwanja wa wanaume";[1] hata hivyo, tafiti za kikabila na rekodi za akiolojia zinaonyesha kuwa pombe ilikuwa kimsingi shughuli inayofanywa na wanawake,[2][3] hadi utengenezaji wa pombe ilianza.[4] Katika maeneo mengine, mila hiyo iliibuka kwa sababu utengenezaji wa pombe ulikuwa matokeo ya mkusanyiko,[5] wakati katika maeneo mengine, ulianguka katika uwanja wa kuoka.[6] Kuanzia karne ya 18 na kuendelea, wanawake walizidi kuzuiliwa kutika biashara ya kutengeneza pombe, isipokuwa kama wafanyabiashara wa pombe au "watoza ushuru", wenye leseni zinazoendesha baa.[7] Kufikia karne ya 19, wanawake wachache walikuwa wameajiriwa katika kutengeneza pombe isipokuwa kazi za msaidizi, kama vile kuweka chupa na nafasi za ukatibu. Katika karne ya 20, wanawake walianza kufanya kazi kwa kiwango kidogo katika maabara, lakini kando na wachache isipokuwa Susannah Oland nchini Canada,[4][8] wanawake walitengwa kuongoza shughuli za utengenezaji pombe.[4] Wataalamu wa bia wa kike katika jamii ya Magharibi kabla ya biashara hiyo kuwa "ya kiume", walikuwa wakitajwa kama "wanyweshaji".[9]
Wanaakiolojia wamethibitisha kuwa kinywaji cha tarehe 7000-600 KK. na iliyotengenezwa katika makazi ya Neolithic ya Jiahu, ni grog ya zamani kabisa inayojulikana. Uchambuzi juu ya ufinyanzi unaonyesha muundo wa kemikali wa kinywaji hicho ulitokana na mchanganyiko wa chakula cha asali, kilichochanganywa na mchanganyiko wa mchele, zabibu, na matunda ya hawthorn-kutengeneza bia mchanganyiko na kinywaji cha divai. Ingawa mchakato uliotumiwa kuvunja nafaka ya mpunga, iwe ni kutafuna au kuyeyuka, haujulikani, wanawake katika Japani na Taiwan katika enzi ya kisasa bado wanafanya kazi ya kutafuna mchele ili kuanza mchakato wa uchakachuaji wa kutengeneza pombe.[10] Katika hadithi ya Wachina, Yi Di, mke wa Yu the Great, anasifiwa kwa kutengeneza pombe ya kwanza kutoka kwa nafaka za mchele.[11] Kiumbe wa kike wa kiungu katika hadithi za Ainu anayejulikana kama Kamui Fuchi alikuwa mlinzi wa watengeneza pombe na wanywaji wa pombe waliomwomba na kutoa sadaka ili kuhakikisha kinga ya pepo wachafu ambao wangeweza kuharibu kundi.[12]
Katika Sumeria ya zamani, pombe ilikuwa taaluma pekee ambayo "ilisimamiwa na mungu wa kike", ambayo ni Ninkasi.[13] Kompyuta kibao iliyopatikana tangu 1800 KK ina Wimbo wa Ninkasi ambao pia ni kichocheo cha bia ya Mesopotamia.[14] Bia ya Sumeri ilitengenezwa kutoka kwa bippar, mkate uliotengenezwa kwa shayiri iliyooka mara mbili, ambayo wakati huo ilichachawa.[6] Katika Babeli ya zamani, wanawake walifanya kazi kama waokaji mkate na mara nyingi walikuwa wakishiriki katika usambazaji wa bia kibiashara. Wanaakiolojia wanaamini kuwa Wasumeri na Wababeli walikuwa na jukumu la kueneza michakato ya utengenezaji pombe Afrika.[15] Kuleta pombe huko Misri ya zamani kulifuata njia inayofanana na bia ya Sumeri, mara nyingi ikitumia unga huo kama msingi wa bia na mkate.[16] Kuza pombe kulizingatiwa mkoa wa wanawake wa Misri, "haswa hatua za kusaga nafaka na kutia rangi mash". Mungu wa kike Hathor alidhaniwa alibuni pombe na hekalu la Hathor huko Dendera lilijulikana kama "mahali pa ulevi".[17] Mungu mwingine wa kike wa Misri, Tenenet, aliabudiwa kama mungu wa bia na hieroglyphics kwenye makaburi inayoonyesha picha za wanawake wote wanaotengeneza na kunywa kinywaji hicho.[15] Jamii zingine za Kiafrika pia ziliwasifu wanawake kwa kutengeneza bia. Kwa mfano, mungu wa uzazi wa Kizulu, Mbaba Mwana Waresa, anaheshimiwa kwa uvumbuzi wake,[18] kama vile mungu wa Dogon, Yasigi, ambaye mara nyingi huonyeshwa akicheza na ladle ya bia kuashiria jukumu lake la kusambaza bia iliyotengenezwa na wanawake katika mikutano ya sherehe.[19][20] Wanawake nchini Burkina Faso wamekuwa wakitengeneza pumba la mtama uliochachawa kuwa bia kwa miaka 5,500.[15] Nchini Tanzania, wanawake na wanaume husaidia kuvuna na kutengeneza aina tofauti za pombe, pamoja na ulanzi na pombe. Wanawake nchini Tanzania kwa kawaida wamekuwa "wauzaji pekee" wa vinywaji, na wengi hutumia pesa wanazotengeneza kwa kuuza pombe ili kujiongezea kipato.[21]
Mapema mnamo 1600 KWK, ustaarabu wa Wamaya walikuwa wakitumia maharagwe ya kakao kutengeneza bia, muda mrefu kabla ya kutumika kutengeneza kakao isiyo ya kileo.[22] Ingawa njia halisi za uzalishaji hazijulikani, Friar Landa alielezea mchakato wa kuandaa vinywaji kuwa ni pamoja na kusaga mahindi na kakao kwenye siagi kabla ya kuongeza vinywaji na viungo.[23] Kilimo kilikuwa ndani ya eneo la mwanadamu katika ulimwengu wa Mayan, lakini maandalizi ya chakula yalikuwa ya wanawake.[24] Kwenye vase ya zamani ya kauri, utayarishaji wa chokoleti unaonyesha mwanamke akimimina dutu hii kati ya vyombo viwili kuunda povu inayotamaniwa sana na Wamaya.[23] Wanawake wa Andean wa kabla ya Columbian walitafuna mahindi (mara kwa mara wakitumia mihogo au quinoa) kuvunja wanga na kisha kuitema ili kuanza kuchacha. Chicha, kinywaji kinachosababishwa, bado inapatikana katika Amerika ya Kusini.[25] Katika Dola ya Wari, ushahidi wa akiolojia umeonyesha kuwa wanywaji wa kike wasomi wa Wari waliendesha bia na kwamba mila hiyo iliendelea katika jamii ya Incan.[26] Kanda yote ya Andes na Mesoamerica, wanawake walikuwa wazalishaji wakuu wa vileo. Wakati wa karne ya 15 huko Peru, maisha ya wanawake kati ya watu wa Xauxa wa Bonde la Juu la Mantaro yalibadilishwa na mchakato wa kutengeneza chicha.[27] Baada ya Xauxa kutekwa na Inca, wanawake walilazimika kufanya kazi kwa bidii ili kuzalisha pombe zaidi.[28] Huko Mexico, mungu wa kike, "Mayahuel" aliheshimiwa kati ya Waazteki kwa kugundua jinsi ya kuchimba kijiko cha agave kwa utengenezaji wa pulque.[29] Baada ya uvamizi wa Uhispania, wanawake nchini Brazil na Mexico, na pia katika maeneo yote ya Andes, hawakuwa wazalishaji wa vileo tu, bali pia wauzaji wake wakuu wa soko.[30][31]
Jamii za jadi za Wajerumani ziliripotiwa na Warumi kunywa ale, iliyotengenezwa zaidi ya asali iliyochachuka, iliyotengenezwa na wanawake.[32] Hadi nyumba za watawa zilipochukua utengenezaji wa vileo katika karne ya 11, na kuifanya kuwa taaluma kwa watawa na watawa, pombe ilikuwa uwanja wa wanawake wa kabila la Wajerumani.[33] Wanawake wa kabila la Wajerumani wanaohama kawaida walipika nyanda zao na miti yao msituni, ili kuepuka uporaji na wavamizi. Vinywaji vyao havikuwa na hops, ambazo zilipendekezwa kwanza kama nyongeza na Mtakatifu Hildegard wa Bingen. Kwa sababu hops zilitumika kama kihifadhi, kufaa kwa bia kwa matumizi kuliongezeka, ingawa kuongezewa kwa hops pia kuliongeza gharama ya utengenezaji wa pombe.[15] Katika miongo kadhaa kabla ya Kifo Nyeusi huko Uropa, kaya nyingi zilihitaji kiasi kikubwa cha ale, kwa sababu ya ukosefu wa maji ya kunywa na gharama ya vinywaji vingine.[34][35] Wanawake walitumia fursa ya kutengeneza pombe kupata pesa zaidi nyumbani.[34] Huko Brigstock, wanawake wengine walipata leseni za kunywa kwa miezi kadhaa.[34] Wanawake kaskazini mwa England ndio walikuwa bia kuu kwa jamii.[34] Kama ilivyo mahali pengine Ulaya, kuanzishwa kwa vikundi mara nyingi kulilazimisha wanawake kutoka kwenye tasnia ya pombe; Walakini, huko Haarlem huko Uholanzi, kwa sababu wanawake waliruhusiwa kurithi uanachama wa kikundi kutoka kwa wenzi, wengi waliendelea katika taaluma hiyo. Takwimu zilizokusanywa katika kipindi cha kati ya 1518 na 1663, zilionyesha kwamba wanyweshaji 97, robo tatu yao walikuwa wajane, walikuwa wakifanya kazi kati ya jumla ya watengenezaji wa bia 536 jijini.[36]
Kwa karibu miaka elfu moja huko Finland, wanawake wa pombe waliunda bia inayoitwa sahti katika vijiji kote nchini. Kichocheo kawaida kilikuwa na humle, matawi ya mreteni, na shayiri na nafaka za rye ambazo zilikuwa zimeharibiwa na kisha zikavuta katika sauna.[37][38] Hadithi za Kifini ni pamoja na hadithi ya Louhi katika Kalevala, mwanamke ambaye alitengeneza bia kwa kuchanganya mate ya kubeba na asali. Raugutiene, alikuwa mungu wa kike wa Baltic na Slavic, ambaye alikuwa mlinzi wa bia. Alan D. Eames, mtaalam wa jamii ya bia, aliandika nakala mnamo 1993 akisema kwamba Waviking wa Norse, waliruhusu wanawake tu kunywa pombe yao.[15] Wanaakiolojia wamefunua makaburi ya watu wa kabla ya Viking Nordic ambayo yanaonyesha kuwa wanawake ndio walitengeneza na kutumikia pombe. Kwenye kaburi la "Msichana Mtoto", ndoo ya grog iliyozikwa miguuni mwake ilionyesha kuwa kinywaji hicho kilitengenezwa kwa mchanganyiko wa ngano, rye, na shayiri kama msingi na ni pamoja na cranberries, asali, na lingonberries, pamoja na mimea , pamoja na resin ya birch, manemane ya manzi, mkuunjo na yarrow, ili kunukia kinywaji hicho.[39] Wanawake wa Kidenmaki walikuwa bia ya msingi hadi kuanzishwa kwa vikundi katika Zama za Kati. Wakati vikundi vilidhibiti uzalishaji wa taji na jeshi, na vile vile kwa wale walio katika miji, wanawake waliendelea kuwa wauzaji wa pombe kuu vijijini.[40] Hata ndani ya vikundi, wakati nafasi za juu zilichukuliwa na wanaume, wake zao wengi walikuwa na nafasi za chini; kwa kuongezea, kuna ushahidi unaonyesha kwamba pombe nyingi zilizofanywa na familia hizi zilifanywa na wake.[41] Bia ilitolewa kwa Temple Newsam, Yorkshire, na mwanamke wa huko Elizabeth Pease kwa zaidi ya miaka thelathini, wakati wa karne ya kumi na nane (1728-1758).[42][43] Pease iliyotengenezwa pombe, bia kali, bia ya mezani, na bia ndogo; Walakini, kwa sababu alikuwa akivunja msimu, mapato yake hayakuwa sawa na alikuwa maskini kabisa.[43]
Kwa kipindi kirefu cha muda, katika karne zote za 16 na 17, pombe barani Ulaya ilibadilika kutoka kuwa taaluma ya wanawake na kuwa ile inayoongozwa na wanaume, ingawa wanawake walikuwa bado wanahusika katika uuzaji wa bia.[44] Wakati wanawake walilazimishwa kuacha pombe, uundaji wa itikadi mpya juu ya wanawake wanaotengeneza pombe ilifanyika ambayo ilijumuisha "ujenzi wa wanawake kama wasio na uwezo wa kutengeneza pombe; kiunga cha ujenzi huu na mchawi; na nafasi ya wajane kama bia na ale wauzaji ".[45] Maonyesho maarufu ya wazaliwa waliwaelezea kama wachawi, wasioaminika, mafisadi na wa kutisha.[45] Katika Ballad juu ya Ale-Seller, John Lydgate anaelezea mjukuu "anayetumia hirizi zake kushawishi wanaume kunywa".[46] Mke wa alewife katika shairi maarufu la The Tunning of Elynour Rummyng la John Skelton, ni "mkali sana na mbaya".[47] Picha zingine za wazaliwa wa kiingereza nchini Uingereza ziliwaonyesha "wamehukumiwa adhabu ya milele kuzimu".[48] Walakini, "ni ngumu kusema ikiwa wazungu au wanawake waliotengeneza bia walishutumiwa kwa uchawi moja kwa moja." [45]
Wanawake wa jamii za Wamarekani wa Amerika Kaskazini ikiwa ni pamoja na Apache, Maricopa, Pima, na Tohono O'odham walitengeneza bia au divai ya Saguaro cactus, inayoitwa tiswin kwa ibada.[49][50] Wanawake wa Apache pia walizalisha bidhaa iliyotengenezwa na mahindi, ambayo ilikuwa sawa na bia za Mexico, zinazojulikana kama tulpi au tulapa ambazo zilitumika katika ibada za kubalehe za wasichana.[50][51] Sherehe ya kubalehe inajumuisha siku nne za sala, kufunga, ulaji wa chakula na vinywaji vya kiibada, na inaendeshwa kwa kujitolea kwa Bibi Mzungu aliyepakwa rangi, mungu wa Apache.[52] Coahuiltecan na makabila mengine kutoka eneo lao la Texas walifanya kilevi kutoka kwa yucca na maharagwe nyekundu ya mlima wa mlima.[50][51]
Katika makoloni ya Amerika Kaskazini wanawake waliendelea na unywaji pombe wa nyumbani ambao, kwa angalau karne, ndiyo njia kuu ya utengenezaji wa bia. Wakati Thomas Jefferson anaweza kuwa maarufu kwa pombe yake, Martha Jefferson alikuwa pia mashuhuri kwa bia yake ya ngano.[9][15] Muuza pombe wa kwanza wa kibiashara katika Makoloni kumi na tatu alikuwa Mary Lisle, ambaye alirithi kiwanda cha bia cha baba yake mnamo 1734 na akaiendesha hadi 1751.[53] Mnamo 1713, Elizabeth na John Haddon walijenga nyumba ya matofali yenye ghorofa tatu iitwayo New Haddonfield Plantation, ambapo Elizabeth Haddon alisimamia mali ya familia na mumewe alielekea kwenye safari zake za kimishonari; Nyumba ya Bia aliyoijenga mnamo 1713 bado iko nyuma ya nyumba.[54] Ingawa mwanamke wa kwanza wa bia wa kike aliyerekodiwa katika Makoloni alikuwa Mary Lisle, ambaye alirithi kiwanda cha pombe cha baba yake cha Philadelphia mnamo 1734, kuna sababu ya kuamini kuwa katika mto Kusini mwa Jersey, Haddon ilikuwa ikiendesha operesheni ya kunywa pombe ya nyumbani zaidi ya wastani.[55]
Huko Canada, Susannah Oland, mwanamke Mwingereza aliyehamia Canada mnamo 1865, na mumewe walianzisha kiwanda maarufu cha bia kinachoitwa Navy na Army Brewery. Baada ya mumewe kufariki, Oland alianzisha kiwanda cha pombe mwenyewe, ingawa alificha jinsia yake kwa kutaja biashara hiyo "S. Oland Sons and Company," akitumia herufi za mwanzo kuficha ukweli kwamba alikuwa mwanamke.[56] Alikuwa muundaji wa mapishi ya bia ambayo ikawa msingi wa kuanzisha kiwanda cha zamani zaidi cha pombe cha Canada, Moosehead Brewery.
Katika Australia ushahidi unaonyesha mgawanyiko wa wafanyikazi wenye tabia mbaya na wanaume wanaohusika na uwindaji na wanawake wanaokusanya kukusanya na kuandaa chakula. Wanawake wa asili waliandaa vinywaji kutoka kwa maua. Maua yalikuwa yametumbukizwa ndani ya maji, au kupondwa ili kutoa nekta na kuchanganywa na mchwa wa asali ili kuchacha.[57]
Katika siku za kisasa
haririKuanzia mwanzo wa uwanda wa viwanda hadi miaka ya 1960 na mwanzoni mwa miaka ya 1970, wanawake wengi waliondolewa kwenye tasnia ya pombe, ingawa ulimwenguni kote, waliendelea kunywa pombe kufuatia njia za mababu.[15] "Vizuizi vikuu ambavyo wanawake wanaendelea kukabili katika [tasnia] ni pamoja na maoni ya ladha, ushawishi wa media, na maoni yaliyodhaniwa juu ya ustadi na uwezo wao", kulingana na mwandishi wa habari Krystal Baugher.[58]
Wanawake wa Amerika kama vile Jill Vaughn na Rebecca Bennett wamefanikiwa kuwa watengenezaji wakubwa wa pombe huko Anheuser-Busch, ambapo walitengeneza bidhaa kama Bud Light Platinum, Shock Top na Straw-Ber-Rita.[59] Patricia Henry ni mwanamke wa kwanza Mwafrika Mmarekani kusimamia Kampuni kubwa ya bia ya Amerika ya Miller Brewing Company, sasa MillerCoors, huko Eden, NC. Suzanne Stern Denison na Jane Zimmerman walifanya kazi na kuwekeza huko Sonoma, New Albion Brewing iliyofungwa kwa muda mrefu huko California, iliyoanzishwa mnamo 1976 na kiwanda kipya cha kwanza cha bia huko Amerika tangu Marufuku; Jack McAuliffe mara nyingi ndiye mtu pekee anayetajwa kama mwanzilishi.[60] Hart Brewing ilianzishwa kwa ushirikiano na Beth Hartwell na Tom Baune mnamo 1984 huko Kalama, Washington; walikuwa waanzilishi wa mapema wa kutengeneza pombe katika Pasifiki Kaskazini Magharibi na Hart alikuwa mwanamke wa kwanza kujulikana kumiliki kiwanda cha kuuza pombe katika zama za baada ya Marufuku.[61][62][63][64] Mari Kemper na mumewe walifungua Thomas Kemper Brewing kwenye Kisiwa cha Bainbridge (karibu na Seattle) mnamo 1985 na sasa wanamiliki Chuckanut Brewery & Jikoni huko Bellingham.[60][65][66] Mellie Pullman ni profesa katika Chuo Kikuu cha Jimbo la Portland; ambapo alikuja kuwa mama wa kwanza wa pombe aliyejulikana huko Merika wakati alipochukua kazi huko Schirf Brewing huko Park City, Utah mnamo 1986.[67] Carol Stoudt alianzisha Kampuni ya Bia ya Stoudts huko Adamstown, Pennsylvania mnamo 1987; alikuwa mmoja wa wakubwa wa pombe wa kike tangu Kukatazwa nchini na mmiliki wa kike wa kwanza kujulikana nchini. Teri Fahrendorf alikuwa mama wa tatu wa pombe ya ufundi nchini; alifanya kazi kama bia katika Kiwanda cha Bia cha Golden Gate na Triple Rock Brewery huko Berkeley, California, Steelhead Brewery huko Eugene, Oregon.[68][69][70][71] Fahrendorf baadaye alianzisha Jamii ya Buti za Pink. Kim Jordan alishirikiana ilianzisha Kampuni mpya ya Bia ya Ubelgiji na mume Jeff Lebesch mnamo 1991 huko Fort Collins, Colorado.[72] Leah Wong Ashburn alichukua nafasi ya baba yake Oscar Wong, ambaye alifungua Highland Brewing Co mnamo 1994; ni moja wapo ya bia kongwe zaidi ya North Carolina.[73] Mariah na Sam Calagione walianzisha kampuni ya kutengeneza pombe ya Dogfish Head mnamo 1995.[74] Natalie na Vinnie Cilurzo, mtayarishaji wa kiwanda cha bia cha mto Kirusi, alipata haki za chapa hiyo na akafungua kiwanda cha pombe huko Santa Rosa, California mnamo 2004.[60][75][76] Wanawake wengine walifungua bia za mapema za ufundi huko Amerika na wamefanya kazi nyingi tofauti na kama bia. Hawa ni pamoja na Marcy Larson, ambaye alianzisha Kampuni ya Bia ya Alaskan na mumewe Geoff mnamo 1986 huko Juneau, Alaska; Irene Firmat, ambaye alianzisha Kampuni kamili ya Bia ya Sail mnamo 1987 huko Hood River, Oregon; Rose Ann Finkel alianzisha Kampuni ya Pike Brewing na mumewe Charles Finkel huko Seattle, Washington mnamo 1989 (na Merchant du Vin mnamo 1978); na Deborah Carey, ambaye alianzisha Kampuni ya New Glarus Brewing Company na mumewe Daniel mnamo 1993 huko New Glarus, Wisconsin.[77][78]
Hivi karibuni, wanawake huko Amerika wamefungua bia nchini kote. Ting Su, mumewe Jeremy Raub, na mkwewe, Steven Raub, walifungua kampuni ya bia ya Eagle Rock huko Los Angeles mnamo 2009; wanachukuliwa kuwa waanzilishi wa eneo la kutengeneza pombe huko.[79] Mkurugenzi Mtendaji na mkuu wa bia Eilise Lane alijifunza kutengeneza bia Kaskazini Magharibi na sasa anaendesha Kampuni ya Scarlet Lane Brewing mnamo 2014 huko Indiana.[80] Kate Power, Betsy Lay, na Jen Cuesta walianzisha Lady Justice Brewing mnamo 2016 huko Aurora, Colorado; kampuni yao ya bia inachangia mashirika ya haki za binadamu na haki za kijamii, haswa kusaidia mashirika ambayo yanawanufaisha wanawake na wasichana.[81] Mnamo mwaka wa 2018, bia Celeste Beatty na Briana Brake walianzisha Rocky Mount Brewing, ambayo ni nafasi ya "biaji ya bia" kwa watengeneza pombe mpya huko Rocky Mount, North Carolina.[82][83] Brake anamiliki na pombe kwa kampuni yake, Spaceway Brewing, ambayo alianza mnamo 2018. Beatty, ambaye alifungua Kampuni ya Bia ya Harlem huko New York mnamo 2000, ndiye mwanamke wa kwanza Weusi anayejulikana kumiliki kiwanda cha kuuza pombe nchini Merika baada ya Marufuku enzi.[84][85] Carol Pak ndiye mwanzilishi wa Makku, kampuni ya kwanza ya makenolli ya makopo ya Amerika (anaiita "bia ya mchele wa Kikorea"); biashara hiyo ilianzishwa huko New York City mnamo 2018 na imetengenezwa kwa mikono huko Maine.[86][87][88][89] Mnamo mwaka wa 2019, Tamil Maldonado Vega ilianzisha Raices Brewing huko Denver, Colorado; ni kampuni ya bia inayomilikiwa na kuendeshwa na Latino ambayo pia hufanya kama kituo cha kumbukumbu kwa wale wanaopenda kujifunza juu ya tamaduni ya Kilatino.[60][90] Mnamo mwaka wa 2016, Shyla Sheppard na Missy Begay walianzisha Bow na Arrow Brewing Co huko Albuquerque, New Mexico, ambayo inajulikana kwa kuchora viungo vya asili kwa bia zao; ni kiwanda pekee cha kienyeji kinachojulikana kinachomilikiwa na wanawake huko Merika.[80][91]
Miongoni mwa bia wanawake wa Canada ni Emily Tipton, mmiliki mwenza na mpikaji pombe wa Boxing Rock Brewing, na Kellye Robertson, ambaye alianza kazi yake huko Garrison Brewing[92] kabla ya kuongoza timu ya kutengeneza pombe huko Spindrift Brewing.[93]
Kuna wanawake kadhaa wanaohusika katika biashara ya kutengeneza pombe huko Mexico City, Mexico. Elizabeth Rosas ndiye mwanzilishi mwenza wa Cervecería Calavera na mkuu wa chapa na uuzaji; yeye na mume Gilbert Nielsen walianzisha kiwanda cha pombe mwaka 2008.[94][95] Lucía Carrillo ndiye mwanzilishi mwenza na mtengenezaji wa bia ya Cervecería Itañeñe, iliyofunguliwa mnamo 2011. Cervecería Dos Mundos ("Ulimwengu Mbili wa Bia") ilianzishwa mnamo 2014 na wenzi wa Briteni na Mexico Caroline King na David Meza katika kitongoji cha Iztapalapa huko Mexico. Jiji.[94] Antonieta Carrión alianzisha Casa Cervecera Madrina mnamo 2014 na labda ndiye mmiliki wa kwanza wa kike na mnyweshaji wa cervecería huko Mexico City; yeye pia ni mmoja wa waanzilishi wa kikundi cha bia cha Adelitas.[94][95] Jessica Martínez alifungua Cervecería Malteza mnamo 2014.[94] Sandra Navarro ni mwanzilishi mwanzilishi na mnyweshaji pombe katika Kampuni ya Bia ya Turulata, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico.[96] Paz Austin ni Mkurugenzi Mkuu wa Chama cha Watengenezaji Bia wa Mexico (ACERMEX).[95]
Katika Amerika ya Kusini, chicha bado inazalishwa sana na wanawake na huliwa kila siku na watu wazima na watoto, kwani kawaida ina kiwango kidogo cha pombe. Huko Ecuador wanawake huvuna yucca, chemsha mizizi, ponda ndani ya kuweka na kisha utafute poda, kwa njia sawa na ile ya mababu zao, kuvunja wanga na kuanza mchakato wa kuchachusha. Wanawake wa Peru hutengeneza toleo lao la chicha kwa kutumia njia ile ile, lakini kwa mahindi.[97] Nchini Brazil, Argentina na Paragwai, kati ya Wahindi wa Amazonia, chicha, iliyotengenezwa kwa mahindi, au bia ya algarroba iliyotengenezwa kutoka kwa mbegu ya carob, na vile vile bia iliyotengenezwa kwa kuchanganya mahindi au manioc na maapulo, tikiti, papai, peari, malenge, mirungi, jordgubbar na viazi vitamu vinatengenezwa na wanawake.[98] Wanawake wa Bolivia hutengeneza bia kutoka kwa shayiri iliyochomwa, ambayo inatafunwa kuanza mchakato wa kuchachusha na hupewa kila siku kama nyongeza ya lishe.[99]
Mnamo 2013, Sara Barton, mmiliki na mkurugenzi wa Kiwanda cha Bia cha Brewster, alishinda tuzo ya Brewer of the Year, na kuwa mwanamke wa kwanza kupokea heshima inayotolewa kila mwaka na Chama cha Waandishi wa Bia cha Uingereza. Emma Gilleland, ambaye anaongoza ugavi katika Kiwanda cha pombe cha Marston, kiwanda kinachoongoza cha pombe huru nchini Uingereza, aliitwa bia mwenye ushawishi mkubwa nchini Uingereza na BBC.[100]
Mtaalam wa pombe aliyejulikana wa Ujerumani, ambaye pia ni mtawa wa mwisho wa Bavaria, Dada Doris Engelhard, amekuwa akitengeneza bia huko Mallersdorf Abbey kwa zaidi ya miaka 40.[101][102] Wanywaji wengine wa kike wa Bavaria ni Sigi Friedmann wa Kiwanda cha pombe cha Friedmann (Kijerumani: Brauerei Friedmann) huko Gräfenberg na Gisela na Monika Meinel wa Kiwanda cha Meinel-Bräu huko Hof.[101] De Ryck ni mmoja wa wanawake wachache wanaotengeneza pombe nchini Ubelgiji. Ameendesha bia ya De Ryck (Kiholanzi: Brouwerij De Ryck) tangu miaka ya 1970, akishinda tuzo kadhaa kwa bia alizotengeneza.[103][104] Rosa Merckx alikua msimamizi mkuu wa pombe wa kike na mkurugenzi wa shughuli nchini Ubelgiji alipochukua kiwanda cha pombe cha Liefmans Oudenaarde mnamo 1972, ambapo alikuwa akifanya kazi tangu 1946.[105]
Mnamo mwaka wa 2015, mradi wa "Wanawake 100" wa BBC, alimheshimu Leimin Duong, mwanamke wa Kivietinamu na Australia, ambaye hutengeneza bia ya strawberry, kama mmoja wa wanawake wenye ushawishi mkubwa wa mwaka.[106] Nchini Australia, kiwanda cha kwanza cha bia cha kike nchini, Ndege Mbili Brewing, imeshinda tuzo nyingi kwa bia zao, lakini mnamo 2016, wamiliki Jayne Lewis na Danielle Allen walipewa tuzo ya Bingwa wa Kiwanda cha Kiwanda cha wastani cha Australia na Bia ya Kimataifa ya Australia. Tuzo.[107]
Katika tamaduni nyingi za jadi za Kiafrika, bia bado hutengenezwa tu na wanawake[108] na mara nyingi chanzo chao pekee cha kupata uhuru wa kiuchumi.[109] Kwa mfano, nchini Kamerun wanawake wa watu wa Gbaya hutengeneza bia ya jadi kutoka kwa mahindi na mtama iitwayo amgba, ambayo ni chakula kikuu[110] na wanawake wa watu wa Mafa hutengeneza bilbil - inayoitwa dong-long katika lugha ya Tupuri, uzum katika Lugha ya Giziga, na zom katika lugha ya Mafa - kutoka mtama.[111] Zote mbili zilianzia kama vinywaji vya kitamaduni kwa sherehe, lakini sasa zinatumika kama njia ya kuishi kiuchumi kwa wanawake wengi.[110][112] Bia za mtama zinazozalishwa na wanawake katika mataifa mengine ya Kiafrika ni pamoja na bili bili nchini Chad, burkutu au pito nchini Ghana na Nigeria, chibuku au doro nchini Zimbabwe, dolo nchini Burkina Faso, ikigage nchini Rwanda, kaffir nchini Afrika Kusini, merissa nchini Sudan, mtama nchini Tanzania. , na tchoukoutou huko Benin na Togo.[113] Katika makabila ya Kixhosa na Kizulu ya Afrika Kusini, wanawake kwa jadi walikuwa wakisimamia utengenezaji wa umqombothi, bia iliyotengenezwa kienyeji iliyotengenezwa kwa kimea cha mahindi, mtama wa mtama, chachu na maji. Umqombothi huandaliwa juu ya moto wazi na hutiwa ndani ya ngoma kubwa iitwayo gogogo.[114]
Katika bia za kibiashara za Kiafrika, ingawa mara nyingi wanawake ni washirika na wenzi wao wa ndoa, ni sita tu zinazoendeshwa na bia wanawake. Mmoja wa hawa, Apiwe Nxusani-Mawela, ni mmiliki wa bia, mmiliki wa bia na mtu wa kwanza mweusi wa Afrika Kusini aliyeidhinishwa kama mkufunzi wa Taasisi ya Utengenezaji pombe na Kutengenezea na kama jaji wa bia aliyethibitishwa kwa Programu ya Udhibitisho wa Bia ya Afrika Kusini. Mwingine ni Thea Blom, ambaye alianza kama mpishi na kisha akaongeza bia ya ufundi kwenye biashara yake, Oakes Brew House, na akamwajiri bia Happy Sekanka kuunda bia za kampuni hiyo.[108][115] Josephine "Fina" Uwineza, mtaalam wa mikahawa nchini Rwanda alianza kutathmini ikiwa kufungua kiwanda cha bia cha kwanza nchini kunaweza kutumika kama jukwaa la kuwawezesha wanawake na kuwapa ajira. Mnamo mwaka wa 2016, alishirikiana na Chama cha Wafanyabiashara wa Ufundi wa Ontario ili kuchunguza kuunda mradi huo.[116][117]
Nchini Nepal, kama walivyokuwa nayo kwa karne nyingi, wanawake hutengeneza raksi, kinywaji chenye pombe kali kilichotengenezwa na mchele. Hapo awali ilitumika kwa madhumuni ya sherehe katika ibada za Wahindu na Wabudhi, lakini ni sehemu muhimu sana ya maisha ya kitamaduni katika bonde la Kathmandu, kwamba mamlaka mara kwa mara hupuuza marufuku ya kisheria dhidi ya uzalishaji na matumizi. Wanawake kijadi hujiingiza katika mchakato wa utengenezaji wa pombe wa mwezi mzima na kuuza raksi zao nyingi kwenye mikahawa.[118] Vinywaji vingine muhimu vya Nepali vilivyotengenezwa ni Chhyang, Jaandh, Thon, na Tongba, (inayojulikana kwa majina na tahajia anuwai), ambazo kawaida hutengenezwa na wanawake. Vinywaji hivyo vimetengenezwa Nepal na Tibet, vinywaji vimetengenezwa kwa shayiri, mchele au mtama. Baada ya kuloweka nafaka ndani ya maji, hutiwa mvuke[119][120] na kisha kuchanganywa na wakala wa kuanzia anayejulikana kama marcha, ambayo huandaliwa kutoka kwa mikondo ya ngano (iitwayo mana) au mchele au unga wa mtama (unaojulikana kama manapu). Kichocheo cha kutengeneza marcha wakati mwingine ni siri inayolindwa sana na hupitishwa kwa mabibi-mkwe tu.[121]
Japani, baada ya biashara ya kutengeneza pombe, kwa sababu ya bia, inayojulikana kama tōji (Kijapani: 杜氏) walikuwa kwa vizazi, wahamiaji ambao walisafiri kati ya bia na kufanya kazi wakati wa msimu wa baridi. Kama mauzo yalipungua pamoja na idadi ya tōji iliyofunzwa, wamiliki walianza kujinyonya. Ingawa bado ni uwanja unaotawaliwa na wanaume, kufikia 2015, kuna takriban pombe 20 za kike huko Japan na Kikundi cha Sekta ya Wanawake kimeundwa ili kuongeza idadi yao. Emi Machida (Kijapani: 町 田 恵 美 さ ん) ameendesha kiwanda cha bia cha familia yake chenye miaka 130 kwa miaka kumi kama kinasa na ameshinda medali saba za dhahabu kwa ajili yake kutoka Tuzo za Mwaka za Japani za Japani.[122] Miho Imada (Kijapani: み ほ い ま だ) anafahamika kwa njia yake ya Hiroshima-junmai ginjo ambayo hutumia maji laini sana, joto la chini na mchakato wa uchakachuaji polepole kuleta ladha na tunda la matunda.[123] Minoh Brewing, iliyofunguliwa mnamo 1997 karibu na Osaka, inaendeshwa na Kaori Oshita. [89][124]
Huko Korea Kusini, Seolhee Lee ni Kampuni ya bia ya upainia ya kike ya Kampuni ya Magpie Brewing; kampuni hiyo inamilikiwa na Tiffany Needham.[125][126]
Pink Boots Society ni shirika linalosaidia wanawake wanaofanya kazi katika tasnia ya bia.[127] Ilianzishwa na Teri Farhrendorf, ambaye pia aliongozwa na bwana wa pombe wa mapema, Carol Stoudt, ambaye alizindua kampuni yake ya bia mnamo 1987.[128] Kuna sura za Jamii ya Buti za Pink huko Canada, Australia na Merika.[129] Wataalam wa Bia Kike huko Mexico ni NGO iliyoundwa mnamo 2012 kukuza utamaduni na elimu ya bia; mnamo 2020, ilikuwa na zaidi ya wanachama 2,000 na wawakilishi na waratibu katika miji 15 huko Mexico na San Diego, California.[130] Adelitas Cerveceras, kikundi cha wanawake 130 wa Mexico ambacho kilianzishwa mnamo 2019, kinakuza ushiriki wa wanawake katika tasnia ya bia kupitia mtandao wa msaada na kazi.[130]
Bière de Femme, huko North Carolina, ilianzishwa mnamo 2017 kama hafla ya kuwaleta wanawake katika tasnia ya bia pamoja, lakini pia kukutana na watumiaji na wapenzi wa bia wa jinsia zote.[131] FemAle Brew Fest, sherehe ya bia ya Florida, ilianzishwa mnamo 2016 kusaidia ukuaji wa wanawake katika utengenezaji wa pombe.[132] Nchini Sweden, walitengeneza bia iitwayo "Tunaweza Kuifanya", iliyoonyeshwa kwenye bango la Rosie the Riveter na Westinghouse mnamo 2015. Lengo lilikuwa kuunda bia iliyotengenezwa na wanawake, ambayo haikuwa tunda au laini, lakini kwa msingi wa mapitio ya kisayansi ya kile wanawake walitaka kunywa.[133]
Wanawake pia wametambuliwa katika utengenezaji wa pombe nyumbani. Mnamo 2013, Annie Johnson alishinda tuzo ya Chama cha Wakuzaji Nyumbani wa Mwaka wa Chama cha Wafanyabiashara wa Nyumbani cha Amerika.[92]
Marejeo
hariri- ↑ "Brewing beer for art - News - The Free Press - Kinston, NC". web.archive.org. 2016-02-22. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-02-22. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-06.
- ↑ Eber, Christine Engla (2000). Women & alcohol in a highland Maya town : water of hope, water of sorrow. Internet Archive. Austin : University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-72104-3.
- ↑ Dietler, Michael (2006-09-19). "Alcohol: Anthropological/Archaeological Perspectives". Annual Review of Anthropology. 35 (1): 229–249. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123120. ISSN 0084-6570. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2020-09-08. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-06.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|dead-url=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 "Brewery History: 121, pp. 5-24". web.archive.org. 2016-11-16. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-11-16. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-06.
- ↑ Katz, Sandor Ellix (2012-05-14). The Art of Fermentation: New York Times Bestseller (kwa Kiingereza). Chelsea Green Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60358-364-0.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Beer in the Ancient World (Article) - Ancient History Encyclopedia". web.archive.org. 2016-09-12. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-09-12. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-06.
- ↑ Blocker, Jack S.; Fahey, David M.; Tyrrell, Ian R. (2003). Alcohol and Temperance in Modern History: An International Encyclopedia (kwa Kiingereza). ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-833-4.
- ↑ "Upwardly Mobile - Canadian Packaging, April 2014 - Canadian Packaging". web.archive.org. 2014-11-11. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2014-11-11. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-06.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 "Support - National Women's History Museum - NWHM". web.archive.org. 2016-07-29. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-07-29. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-06.
- ↑ "Prehistoric China". web.archive.org. 2016-10-21. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-10-21. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-06.
- ↑ "Chinese Alcohol, Chinese Spirits". web.archive.org. 2016-05-04. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-05-04. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-06.
- ↑ Munro, Neil Gordon (1996). Ainu creed and cult. B. Z. Seligman. London. ISBN 978-1-136-16528-3. OCLC 889813288.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ↑ Hornsey, Ian Spencer (2003). A History of Beer and Brewing (kwa Kiingereza). Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-0-85404-630-0.
- ↑ Hornsey, Ian S. (2003). A history of beer and brewing. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-1-84755-002-6. OCLC 228302691.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 "How Women Brewsters Saved the World | Craft Beer & Brewing Magazine". web.archive.org. 2015-09-10. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2015-09-10. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-06.
- ↑ The Oxford companion to beer. Garrett Oliver. New York: Oxford University Press. 2012. ISBN 978-0-19-536713-3. OCLC 706025045.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: others (link) - ↑ Hornsey, Ian Spencer (2003). A History of Beer and Brewing (kwa Kiingereza). Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-0-85404-630-0.
- ↑ Auset, Priestess Brandi (2009). The Goddess Guide: Exploring the Attributes and Correspondences of the Divine Feminine (kwa Kiingereza). Llewellyn Worldwide. ISBN 978-0-7387-1551-3.
- ↑ Kohn, Rita (2013-08-06). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Beer Tasting: A Comprehensive Guide to Understanding and Enjoying Beer (kwa Kiingereza). Penguin. ISBN 978-1-61564-352-3.
- ↑ Hackett, Rosalind (1998-10-01). Art and Religion in Africa (kwa Kiingereza). A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-8264-3655-9.
- ↑ Schiefenhovel, Wulf; Macbeth, Helen (2013-09-15). Liquid Bread: Beer and Brewing in Cross-Cultural Perspective (kwa Kiingereza). Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-78238-034-4.
- ↑ Wilkie, Laurie A. (2016-06-16). Strung Out on Archaeology: An Introduction to Archaeological Research (kwa Kiingereza). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-41951-0.
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Art (N.M.), Museum of International Folk (2003). Cerámica Y Cultura: The Story of Spanish and Mexican Mayólica (kwa Kiingereza). UNM Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-3102-1.
- ↑ McClusky, Laura (2010-07-05). Here, Our Culture Is Hard: Stories of Domestic Violence from a Mayan Community in Belize (kwa Kiingereza). University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-78819-0.
- ↑ Encyclopedia of Food and Health (kwa Kiingereza). Academic Press. 2015-08-26. ISBN 978-0-12-384953-3.
- ↑ "Elite Women Made Beer in Pre-Incan Culture". web.archive.org. 2016-04-13. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-04-13. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-06.
- ↑ Pierce, Gretchen; Toxqui, çurea (2014-03-27). Alcohol in Latin America: A Social and Cultural History (kwa Kiingereza). University of Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-3076-2.
- ↑ Pierce, Gretchen; Toxqui, çurea (2014-03-27). Alcohol in Latin America: A Social and Cultural History (kwa Kiingereza). University of Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-3076-2.
- ↑ Latin American history. William H. Beezley. [New York]. 2014. ISBN 978-0-19-936643-9. OCLC 1226294171.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link) - ↑ Latin American history. William H. Beezley. [New York]. 2014. ISBN 978-0-19-936643-9. OCLC 1226294171.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link) - ↑ More, Anna (2012-11-29). Baroque Sovereignty: Carlos de Siguenza y Gongora and the Creole Archive of Colonial Mexico (kwa Kiingereza). University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0655-5.
- ↑ Salisbury, Joyce E. (2001). Encyclopedia of Women in the Ancient World (kwa Kiingereza). ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-092-5.
- ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20161114151000/http://www.germanbeerinstitute.com/history.html
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 Hornsey, Ian Spencer (2003). A History of Beer and Brewing (kwa Kiingereza). Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-0-85404-630-0.
- ↑ Unger, Richard W. (2004). Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (kwa Kiingereza). University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-3795-5.
- ↑ "IISG | International Institute of Social History". iisg.amsterdam (kwa Kiingereza). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-06.
- ↑ "Sahti: One of the World's Oldest Beer Styles - American Homebrewers Association". web.archive.org. 2016-03-14. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-03-14. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-06.
- ↑ "Brewing a Viking Era Ale | The Distant Mirror". web.archive.org. 2015-09-27. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2015-09-27. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-06.
- ↑ "Ancient Nordic Grog Intoxicated the Elite". web.archive.org. 2016-01-26. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-01-26. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-06.
- ↑ "Danish Microbreweries -The official website of Denmark". web.archive.org. 2016-06-30. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-06-30. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-06.
- ↑ Bennett, Judith M. (1996-11-07). Ale, Beer, and Brewsters in England: Women's Work in a Changing World, 1300-1600 (kwa Kiingereza). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-536079-0.
- ↑ "Beer, glorious beer: Leeds celebrates Yorkshire brewing heritage with one-off exhibitions". Lonely Planet (kwa Kiingereza). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-06.
- ↑ 43.0 43.1 Ellen Barlow, 1-03-18 Post. "How beer and brewing kept the country house running at Temple Newsam". Museum Crush (kwa Kiingereza (Uingereza)). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-06.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ↑ Barry, Jonathan; Hester, Marianne; Roberts, Gareth (1998-03-12). Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe: Studies in Culture and Belief (kwa Kiingereza). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63875-3.
- ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Barry, Jonathan; Hester, Marianne; Roberts, Gareth (1998-03-12). Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe: Studies in Culture and Belief (kwa Kiingereza). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63875-3.
- ↑ Earnshaw, Steven (2000). The Pub in Literature: England's Altered State (kwa Kiingereza). Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-5305-4.
- ↑ Bennett, Judith M. (1996-11-07). Ale, Beer, and Brewsters in England: Women's Work in a Changing World, 1300-1600 (kwa Kiingereza). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-536079-0.
- ↑ Bennett, Judith M. (1996-11-07). Ale, Beer, and Brewsters in England: Women's Work in a Changing World, 1300-1600 (kwa Kiingereza). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-536079-0.
- ↑ "Centers for American Indian & Alaska Native Health | Colorado School of Public Health". coloradosph.cuanschutz.edu (kwa Kiingereza). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 Medicine, Beatrice (2007). Drinking and Sobriety Among the Lakota Sioux (kwa Kiingereza). Rowman Altamira. ISBN 978-0-7591-0571-3.
- ↑ 51.0 51.1 "Centers for American Indian & Alaska Native Health | Colorado School of Public Health". coloradosph.cuanschutz.edu (kwa Kiingereza). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Apache Puberty Rites: 6 Girls Attain Womanhood - IndianCountryToday.com". web.archive.org. 2018-09-22. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2018-09-22. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ Ronnenberg, Herman Wiley (2016-06-16). Material Culture of Breweries (kwa Kiingereza). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-42479-8.
- ↑ "Elizabeth Haddon". History of American Women (kwa American English). 2008-08-04. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Was Elizabeth Haddon New Jersey's First Female Brewer?". New Jersey Monthly. 2019-03-25. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/ale-wives-to-craft-brewers-the-history-of-women-and-beer-1.3283913
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- ↑ "Women and Beer: A 4,500-Year History Is Coming Full Circle - The Atlantic". web.archive.org. 2016-04-13. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-04-13. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
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- ↑ "Hart Brewing Company – McMenamins Blog". blog.mcmenamins.com. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Brewing A National Image Kalama's Mom-And-Pop Brewery Schemes To Hit The Big Time | The Spokesman-Review". www.spokesman.com. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Pyramid at Thirty". Beervana (kwa American English). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Pyramid Breweries Inc. | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ Tap Trail. "Women in Craft Beer: Mari Kemper". Tap Trail (kwa American English). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ Kendall Jones (2012-07-18). "Chuckanut: Seems Like More Than 4 Years Because It has Been". Washington Beer Blog (kwa American English). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "The Nation's First Woman Brewmaster – McMenamins Blog". blog.mcmenamins.com. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "These 10 women are changing the craft beer industry in the United States". Matador Network (kwa American English). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Nakala iliyohifadhiwa". Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2020-10-01. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Great Western's Teri Fahrendorf recalls 30 years in the beer industry". The Columbian (kwa American English). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Eugene's Steelhead Brewing". brewpublic.com. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ Chloe Sorvino. "New Belgium's Kim Jordan Talks About What It Takes To Be America's Richest Female Brewer". Forbes (kwa Kiingereza). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Nakala iliyohifadhiwa". Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2020-09-29. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Mariah Calagione: Brewing at the Beach". Women's Daily Post (kwa American English). 2019-07-27. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Russian River's Natalie Cilurzo on the Rise of Women in Beer". Russian River's Natalie Cilurzo on the Rise of Women in Beer (kwa American English). Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2021-11-17. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Natalie Cilurzo". www.ssualumni.org (kwa Kiingereza). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "The Evolving Role of Female Brewers and Their Contributions to Beer". CraftBeer.com (kwa American English). 2017-06-29. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ Gabe Guarente (2020-06-22). "Seattle Beer World Mourns the Loss of Beloved Pike Brewing Co-founder Rose Ann Finkel". Eater Seattle (kwa Kiingereza). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Ting Su's Feminist Revolution Is Still Shaking Up LA's Beer Scene". Ting Su's Feminist Revolution Is Still Shaking Up LA's Beer Scene (kwa American English). Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2021-03-20. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ 80.0 80.1 "Meet the women who are changing the US brewing industry". Lonely Planet (kwa Kiingereza). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "The Brewery Where Your Beer Money Supports Female Causes". CraftBeer.com (kwa American English). 2019-08-19. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Female Brewers Launch Black-Owned Brewery at Rocky Mount Mills" (kwa American English). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Briana Brake and Celeste Beatty on Ghosts and Beauty in Rocky Mount". CraftBeer.com (kwa American English). 2020-02-28. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Briana Brake and Celeste Beatty on Ghosts and Beauty in Rocky Mount". CraftBeer.com (kwa American English). 2020-02-28. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ Justin Gmoser. "Meet the first black woman to own a brewery in the US". Insider. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Carol Pak on building America's first craft makgeolli company | Heritage Radio Network". heritageradionetwork.org. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2021-11-17. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "This Brewer Wants America to Fall in Love With Makgeolli". This Brewer Wants America to Fall in Love With Makgeolli (kwa American English). Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2021-11-17. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ Team Rock The Boat (2019-11-08). "Carol Pak | Bringing History & Tradition to Millennials Through Makgeolli". Rock The Boat (kwa Kiingereza). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ 89.0 89.1 "5 female brewers who are shaking up the craft beer industry". SilverKris (kwa Kiingereza (Uingereza)). 2020-02-02. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ Patricia Kaowthumrong (2020-01-31). "How Raíces Is Making Latin American Beer and Culture More Accessible". 5280 (kwa Kiingereza). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Women in brewing", Wikipedia (kwa Kiingereza), 2021-03-25, iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07
- ↑ 92.0 92.1 "More women are taking up brewing craft, including an African-American award-winner | The Chronicle Herald". web.archive.org. 2016-04-28. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-04-28. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "The Chronicle Herald", Wikipedia (kwa Kiingereza), 2020-12-19, iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07
- ↑ 94.0 94.1 94.2 94.3 "In Mexico City, Women Are Taking Over Craft Beer". In Mexico City, Women Are Taking Over Craft Beer (kwa American English). Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2021-11-17. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ 95.0 95.1 95.2 "These Five Women Are Revolutionizing the Craft Beer Game in Mexico". www.vice.com (kwa Kiingereza). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ Amanda Gomez (2020-01-17). "Women brewers in Arizona and Mexico release bi-national beer in Tucson". KVOA (kwa American English). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ Ryan Tuenge (2013-04-24). "Coming Full Circle: Women in Beer". Growler Magazine (kwa American English). Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2021-03-30. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ Haddad, Annette; Doggett, Scott (2004). Travelers' Tales Brazil: True Stories (kwa Kiingereza). Travelers' Tales. ISBN 978-1-932361-05-6.
- ↑ Haddad, Annette; Doggett, Scott (2004). Travelers' Tales Brazil: True Stories (kwa Kiingereza). Travelers' Tales. ISBN 978-1-932361-05-6.
- ↑ "Beer: The women taking over the world of brewing - BBC News". web.archive.org. 2015-11-20. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2015-11-20. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ 101.0 101.1 "Sister Doris: Europe's last beer-making nun - CNN.com". web.archive.org. 2015-11-08. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2015-11-08. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "The Meditations of Europe's Last Brewmaster Nun - The Atlantic". web.archive.org. 2016-04-13. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-04-13. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ Hampson, Tim (2013). World beer. Internet Archive. London : DK. ISBN 978-1-4654-1438-0.
- ↑ "A woman's place is in the brewery | Flanders Today". web.archive.org. 2016-11-18. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-11-18. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ Short Finger Brewing Co. "Women in Brewing Part 3: (R)Evolution". Short Finger Brewing Co. (kwa Kiingereza). Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2021-11-17. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Leimin Duong được BBC vinh danh là 1 trong 100 phụ nữ có ảnh hưởng nhất 2015". web.archive.org. 2015-12-29. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2015-12-29. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Two Birds celebrates five years | Australian Brews News". web.archive.org. 2016-06-09. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-06-09. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ 108.0 108.1 "South African women making it big in the world of brewing - CNBC Africa". web.archive.org. 2016-08-23. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-08-23. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Wayback Machine" (PDF). web.archive.org. 2018-09-21. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2018-09-21. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ 110.0 110.1 "Wayback Machine" (PDF). web.archive.org. 2017-08-08. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2017-08-08. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Wayback Machine" (PDF). web.archive.org. 2018-09-21. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2018-09-21. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Wayback Machine" (PDF). web.archive.org. 2018-09-21. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2018-09-21. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Wayback Machine" (PDF). web.archive.org. 2017-08-08. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2017-08-08. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Black Female Brewers Are Reclaiming Craft Beer in South Africa". Black Female Brewers Are Reclaiming Craft Beer in South Africa (kwa American English). Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2021-11-17. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "South Africa's 'All-girl' Brewery Wins Fans". web.archive.org. 2016-11-19. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-11-19. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ Leslie Wu. "Brewing Change In Rwanda With A Woman-Owned Craft Beer Facility". Forbes (kwa Kiingereza). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "In Rwanda, Craft Beer Opens the Door to Female Empowerment | TakePart". web.archive.org. 2016-10-29. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-10-29. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Nepal housewives break laws to cook up potent brew". Hindustan Times (kwa Kiingereza). 2014-08-17. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Jaandh : An Integral Part of Nepali Culture | Food | ECSNEPAL - The Nepali Way". web.archive.org. 2018-09-07. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2018-09-07. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "To Drink or Not To Drink: Local Beverages of Nepal | Features | ECSNEPAL - The Nepali Way". web.archive.org. 2018-02-10. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2018-02-10. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ Tamang, Jyoti Prakash (2016-08-05). Ethnic Fermented Foods and Alcoholic Beverages of Asia (kwa Kiingereza). Springer. ISBN 978-81-322-2800-4.
- ↑ "Brewing sake in Japan is becoming a woman's game — again | Public Radio International". web.archive.org. 2015-12-11. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2015-12-11. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Meet the 3 Female Sake Brewers Running Japan | SAVEUR". web.archive.org. 2016-05-05. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-05-05. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ Jeremy Wilgus (2018-11-03). "Minoh Beer: A father's dream, a daughter's reality". The Japan Times (kwa American English). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ By Lilit Marcus CNN. "Is this the coolest brewery in Asia?". CNN (kwa Kiingereza). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
{{cite web}}
:|author=
has generic name (help) - ↑ "Why Women Are Leading Korea's Craft Beer Movement". www.vice.com (kwa Kiingereza). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Women in the beer industry find community with Pink Boots Society". MyNorthwest.com. 2016-11-16. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ Mark Garrison (2011-10-27). "How Women Are Breaking Into the Beer Industry". Slate Magazine (kwa Kiingereza). Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ Society of Beer Drinking Ladies aims for inclusive imbibing, iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07
- ↑ 130.0 130.1 "Impetuosa, the craft beer brewed by Mexican women". El Universal (kwa Kihispania). 2020-02-20. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Biere de Femme". Pink Boots Society (kwa American English). 2019-02-12. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2021-11-17. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "FemAle Brew Fest 2020 Announces a Growing List of Participants". CraftBeer.com (kwa American English). 2020-02-06. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
- ↑ "Revolution brewing as Sweden's first beer made by women goes on sale | World news | The Guardian". web.archive.org. 2016-08-06. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-08-06. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-04-07.
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- Smith, Jacqueline. "How These Women Became Top Brewmasters at One of the World's Biggest Beer Companies", Business Insider, 30 May 2014.
- Tamang, Jyoti Prakash (2016). Ethnic Fermented Foods and Alcoholic Beverages of Asia. New Delhi, India: Springer India. ISBN 978-81-322-2800-4.
- "South Africa's 'All-girl' Brewery Wins Fans", Voice of America, 4 December 2014.
- Tuenge, Ryan (23 Aprili 2013). "Coming Full Circle: Women in Beer". The Growler. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2017-03-27. Iliwekwa mnamo 18 Novemba 2016.
{{cite journal}}
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suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - Unger, Richard W. (2004). Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-3795-5.
- van Dekken, Marjolein (27 March 2004). "Female brewers in Holland and England". Fifth European Social Science History Conference. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: International Institute of Social History. http://socialhistory.org/sites/default/files/docs/projects/dekken.doc.
- "More women are taking up brewing craft, including an African-American award-winner", The Chronicle Herald, 22 February 2015. Retrieved on 2021-04-07. Archived from the original on 2016-04-28.
- Wilkie, Laurie A (2016). Strung Out on Archaeology: An Introduction to Archaeological Research. New York City, New York: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-315-41951-0.
- "Beer: The women taking over the world of brewing", BBC News Magazine, 23 January 2014.
- Wolfe, Wes. "Brewing Beer for Art", The Free Press, 10 February 2016. Retrieved on 2021-04-06. Archived from the original on 2016-02-22.
- "Brewing Change in Rwanda with a Woman-Owned Craft Beer Facility", Forbes, 27 October 2016.
- "Beer and Danish Microbreweries". Denmark. Copenhagen, Denmark: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark. 2012. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 30 Juni 2016. Iliwekwa mnamo 18 Novemba 2016.
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na|archive-url=
specified (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - "Chinese Alcohol, Chinese Spirits", China Daily, 27 October 2010.
- "Nepal housewives break laws to cook up potent brew", The Hindustan Times, 17 August 2014.
- "Three Millennia of German Brewing". Newbury, Massachusetts: German Beer Institute. 2005. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 14 Novemba 2016. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Novemba 2016.
{{cite web}}
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na|archive-url=
specified (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - "Two Birds celebrates five years", Australian Brews News, 9 June 2016.
- "A woman's place is in the brewery", Flanders Today, 19 May 2010.