Lugha za Kihindi-Kiulaya

Lugha za Kihindi-Kiulaya ni jamii ya lugha iliyo kubwa kuliko zote duniani. Imekadiriwa kuna lugha hai 445 za jamii hiyo na wasemaji bilioni 3.2 katika mabara yote (46% za watu wote wa leo).

Uenezi wa lugha za Kihindi-Kiulaya (kijani cheupe) kati ya jamii za lugha nyingine duniani.

Uenezi wa wasemaji wa Kihindi-Kiulaya asilia kufuatana na nadharia ya Kurgan

Uenezi katikati ya milenia ya 3 KK

Uenezi katikati ya milenia ya 2 KK

Uenezi takriban mwaka 250 KK

Uenezi huo umetokana hasa na historia ya ukoloni wa Kizungu uliopeleka lugha za Ulaya pande zote za dunia.

Lugha zenye wasemaji zaidi ya milioni 100 ni: Kihispania, Kiingereza, Kihindustani (Kihindi/Kiurdu), Kireno, Kibengali, Kipanjabi na Kirusi.

Nyingine zenye wasemaji zaidi ya milioni 50 ni: Kijerumani, Kifaransa, Kimarathi, Kiitalia na Kiajemi.

Lugha za Kihindi-Kiulaya

Jina la Kihindi-Kiulaya

Jina la Kihindi-Kiulaya limepatikana tangu karne ya 19. Wataalamu walitambua ya kwamba lugha za kale zinazotunzwa kimaandishi kama Kilatini, Kigiriki, Kisanskrit na Kiajemi cha Kale zinafanana kati yake pia na lugha nyingine za kisasa za Ulaya na Uhindi wa Kaskazini.

Lugha za jamii ya Kihindi-Kiulaya zinafanana katika msamiati na sarufi.

     Lugha rasmi kuu     Lugha rasmi ya pili     Iliyotambulika kisheria     Ya maana     Haitumiki

Nadharia ya asili na usambazaji

Inaaminika ya kwamba lugha hizo zilikuwa na asili moja katika lugha isiyojulikana tena ya Kihindi-Kiulaya asilia.

Wasemaji wake wanaaminiwa kuwa walisambaa takriban miaka 6,000 iliyopita kutoka sehemu za Asia ya Magharibi. Sehemu ilikwenda magharibi na kuingia Ulaya, sehemu nyingine ilikwenda Uajemi na Bara Hindi.

Kuna nadharia mbalimbali kuhusu historia hiyo.

Kati ya lugha hizo kuna zifuatazo:

( † inamaanisha ya kwamba lugha hii haina wasemaji tena kama lugha hai)

• Kialbania
• Lugha za Kianatolia †
• Kiarmenia
• Lugha za Kibalti-Kislavoni
  • Kislavoni cha Mashariki (k.m. Kirusi, Kiukraine)
  • Kislavoni cha Magharibi (k.m. Kipolandi, Kicheki, Kislovakia)
  • Kislavoni cha Kusini (k.m. Kibulgaria, Kiserbia, Kikroatia)
  • Kibalti (k.m. Kilituania na Kilatvia)
• Lugha za Kigermanik
  • Kigermanik cha Kaskazini (k.m. Kiswidi, Kidenmark, Kinorwei, Kiiceland)
  • Kigermanik cha Mashariki †
  • Kigermanik cha Magharibi (k.m. Kiingereza, Kijerumani, Kiholanzi, Kiafrikaans)
• Kigiriki
• Lugha za Kihindi-Kiajemi (ndilo kundi kubwa, likiwa na lugha hai 313)
  • Lugha za Kihindi-Kiarya (k.m. Kisanskrit †, Kihindi, Kiurdu)
  • Kiajemi (k.m. Kiajemi cha Kale, Kiajemi, Kidari, Kikurdi)
  • Lugha za Kinuristani
• Lugha za Kiitalia
  • Lugha za Kirumi (k.m. Kilatini †, Kiitalia, Kifaransa, Kihispania, Kireno, Kiromania)
  • Lugha za Kiumbria †
• Lugha za Kiselti (k.m. Kiskoti, Kiwelisi, Kieire)
• Lugha za Kitokari †

Marejeo

• Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05887-0. 
• Auroux, Sylvain (2000). History of the Language Sciences. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-016735-1. 
• Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-0315-2. 
• Brugmann, Karl (1886). Grundriss der Vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen (kwa Kijerumani). Erster Band. Strassburg: Karl J. Trübner. 
• Houwink ten Cate, H.J.; Melchert, H. Craig & van den Hout, Theo P.J. (1981). "Indo-European languages, The parent language, Laryngeal theory". Encyclopædia Britannica 22 (toleo la 15th). Chicago: Helen Hemingway Benton. 
• Holm, Hans J. (2008). "The Distribution of Data in Word Lists and its Impact on the Subgrouping of Languages". Katika Preisach, Christine; Burkhardt, Hans; Schmidt-Thieme, Lars n.k. Data Analysis, Machine Learning, and Applications. Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference of the German Classification Society (GfKl), University of Freiburg, March 7–9, 2007. Heidelberg-Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-78239-1. 
• Kortlandt, Frederik (1990). "The Spread of the Indo-Europeans". Journal of Indo-European Studies 18 (1–2): 131–40. 
• Lubotsky, A. (1988). "The Old Phrygian Areyastis-inscription". Kadmos 27: 9–26. doi:10.1515/kadmos-1988-0103. 
• Kortlandt, Frederik (1988). "The Thraco-Armenian consonant shift". Linguistique Balkanique 31: 71–74. 
• Lane, George S.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1981). "The Tocharian problem". Encyclopædia Britannica 22 (toleo la 15th). Chicago: Helen Hemingway Benton. 
• Porzig, Walter (1954). Die Gliederung des indogermanischen Sprachgebiets. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag. 
• Renfrew, C. (2001). "The Anatolian origins of Proto-Indo-European and the autochthony of the Hittites". Katika Drews, R.. Greater Anatolia and the Indo-Hittite language family. Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man. ISBN 978-0-941694-77-3. 
• Schleicher, August (1861). Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen (kwa German). Weimar: Böhlau (reprinted by Minerva GmbH, Wissenschaftlicher Verlag). ISBN 978-3-8102-1071-5. 
• Szemerényi, Oswald; Jones, David; Jones, Irene (1999). Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-823870-6. 
• von Bradke, Peter (1890). Über Methode und Ergebnisse der arischen (indogermanischen) Alterthumswissenshaft (kwa Kijerumani). Giessen: J. Ricker'che Buchhandlung. 

Marejeo mengine

• Beekes, Robert S.P. (1995). Comparative Indo-European Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 
• Chakrabarti, Byomkes (1994). A comparative study of Santali and Bengali. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co. ISBN 978-81-7074-128-2. 
• Collinge, N.E. (1985). The Laws of Indo-European. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 
• Mallory, J.P. (1989). In Search of the Indo-Europeans. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-27616-7. 
• Renfrew, Colin (1987). Archaeology & Language. The Puzzle of the Indo-European Origins. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-0-224-02495-2. 
• Meillet, Antoine. Esquisse d'une grammaire comparée de l'arménien classique, 1903.
• Ramat, Paolo; Ramat, Anna Giacalone (1998). The Indo-European languages. Routledge. 
• Schleicher, August, A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European Languages (1861/62).
• Strazny, Philip; Trask, R.L., wahariri (2000). Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics (toleo la 1). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-57958-218-0. 
• Szemerényi, Oswald (1957). "The problem of Balto-Slav unity". Kratylos 2: 97–123. 
• Watkins, Calvert (2000). The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-08250-6. 
• Remys, Edmund, General distinguishing features of various Indo-European languages and their relationship to Lithuanian. Berlin, New York: Indogermanische Forschungen, Vol. 112, 2007.
• P. Chantraine (1968), Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque, Klincksieck, Paris.

Viungo vingine

Wikimedia Commons ina media kuhusu:

Lugha za Kihindi-Kiulaya

Databases

• Dyen, Isidore; Kruskal, Joseph; Black, Paul (1997). "Comparative Indo-European". wordgumbo. Iliwekwa mnamo 13 December 2009. 
• "Indo-European". LLOW Languages of the World. Ilihifadhi kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2017-10-10. Iliwekwa mnamo 14 December 2009. 
• "Indo-European Documentation Center". Linguistics Research Center, University of Texas at Austin. 2009. Ilihifadhi kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 3 September 2009. Iliwekwa mnamo 14 December 2009. 
• Lewis, M. Paul, mhariri (2009). "Language Family Trees: Indo-European". Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Online version (toleo la Sixteenth). Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. .
• "Thesaurus Indogermanischer Text- und Sprachmaterialien: TITUS" (kwa German). TITUS, University of Frankfurt. 2003. Iliwekwa mnamo 13 December 2009. 

Lexica

• "Indo-European Etymological Dictionary (IEED)". Leiden, Netherlands: Department of Comparative Indo-European Linguistics, Leiden University. Ilihifadhi kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 7 February 2006. Iliwekwa mnamo 14 December 2009. 
• "Indo-European Roots Index". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (toleo la Fourth). Internet Archive: Wayback Machine. August 22, 2008 [2000]. Ilihifadhi kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo February 17, 2009. Iliwekwa mnamo 9 December 2009. 
• Köbler, Gerhard (2014). Indogermanisches Wörterbuch (kwa German) (toleo la 5th). Gerhard Köbler. Iliwekwa mnamo 29 March 2015. 
• Schalin, Johan (2009). "Lexicon of Early Indo-European Loanwords Preserved in Finnish". Johan Schalin. Iliwekwa mnamo 9 December 2009. 

Makala hii kuhusu mambo ya lugha bado ni mbegu. Je, unajua kitu kuhusu Lugha za Kihindi-Kiulaya kama historia yake, uenezi au maendeleo yake? Labda unaona habari katika Wikipedia ya Kiingereza au lugha nyingine zinazofaa kutafsiriwa? Basi unaweza kuisaidia Wikipedia kwa kuihariri na kuongeza habari.